Methods and Techniques in Highway Design

This document provides an overview of the methods and techniques used in highway design. It covers the profile, alignment, and cross-section of highways, as well as the importance of bridge foundations and flexible highway construction foundations.

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Civil ENGINEERING
By Name
Course
Instructor
Institution
Location
Date

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Task 1
Earthwork
Earthwork refers to the process of excavating soil, transporting it to other places and placing it
during the construction of engineering projects. Earthwork usually involves the following
processes1;
Shifting or excavating of soil
Loading, transportation and offloading of soil
Placing and compacting the offloaded soil2
Depending on the quantity of work to be done, availability of resources and site conditions the
earthworks are carried out by use of different techniques and equipment.
Equipment used in earthwork processes
Various equipment are used during the process of earthworks and they include;
Equipment excavation are:
 Power shovels
 Bulldozers
 Dragline
 Scrapers
 Backhoe
1 Alex Trenter, Earthworks: A Guide, London, Thomas Telford, 2011
2 John Newman, Earthwork Slips and Subsidences upon Public Works: Their Causes, Prevention, and
Reparation. Especially Written to Assist Those Engaged in the Construction or Maintenance of Railways,
Docks, Canals, Roads, Waterworks, River-banks, Reclamation Embankments, Drainage Works, Texas,
E. & F.N. Spon, 2014.

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 Clamshell
Equipment used for transportation
 Tippers
 Belt conveyers
 Dumpers
 Trucks
 Graders
Equipment used for compaction
 Pneumatic tired roller
 Smooth wheel roller
 Vibratory roller equipment
 Sheep foot roller
Earthwork techniques
Different methods are used during the earthwork process such as:
Methods used during excavation are: Levelling, U-cut, Borrow and cut to crossbill
Methods used for measuring the earthwork: Bank measurement volume, compacted volume and
loose measuring technique.3
Methods to create complex foundation
There are many types of foundations that are currently available , that are suitable for different
applications depending on factors such as; ground condition, cost, the nature of the load
3 Alberto Munguia , Field Book For Quality Control In Earthwork Operations, Sydney, iUniverse,2015

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requiring support, load exerted on the piles and durability of the materials. The foundation that
will be constructed can be either be Shallow foundations or deep foundations. The shallow
foundations are generally used where the loads imposed on the structure are relatively low to the
bearing capacity of the soil. Where else the deep foundations are used where the bearing
capacity of the surface soil is insufficient to support the imposed loads and thus there is need
for the loads to be transferred to deep layers which have a higher bearing capacity.4
Method used for pilling works
Different techniques can be used for pilling works depending on the material, function and the
installation procedures .The following are the different types of the pile foundations methods;
Based on use or function
 Load bearing piles
 Soil compaction piles
 Friction piles
 Sheet piles
 End piles
Based on material and construction methods
 Concrete piles
 Steel piles
 Timber piles
Methods and techniques used in culvert and underpass construction
4 John Macneill , Tables for Calculating the Cubic Quantity of Earth Work in the Cuttings and
Embankments of Canals, Railways, and Turnpike Roads, Chicago, Roake and Varty, 2016

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Pipe culverts
This is a construction technology which is widely used. The culvert are rounded in shape and
they can be of singe number of multiple numbers.
Pipe arch culvert
Pipe arch culverts refers to the culverts which are semi circled culverts. This method is usually
suitable for the culverts and under passes where there is a large flow of water.
Box culverts
This method is used where concrete is used to construct rectangular underpasses and culverts. In
this method reinforcement materials are used.
Methods and techniques utilized in large and complex earth moving operations and deep
excavations
The commonly utilized method in the complex earth moving operations is employing a number
of wheel loaders, excavators and haulers to prepare, excavate, load and transport the excavated
soil. This technique is usually more beneficial when the hauling distance and material involved
are very huge.5 The second method which is commonly utilized is the to using more
independent equipment such as the wheel loader and scrapers to carry out the entire process,
this method is more appropriate when the distance between the excavation point and disposal
point is relatively short.
Techniques used in dealing ground and slope stability for slopes found to be unstable
5 John Gardner, Earthwork in Railway Engineering, Read Books, Kiev, 2018

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There are many methods and techniques that are applied to ensure slope stability for the unstable
grounds such as:
Cut and fill
This is a method which is applied in that the earth is moved from one point to another to ensure
that the slope of the ground is stable and at the same time at level. A cut is usually made when
the earth is cut from above the desired ground height and a fill refers to earth which is used
to fill the hole to the required level in order to ensure that the ground is stable.6
Task 2
Hazards and risks associated with working in confined spaces and working on structures
Some of the hazards associated with working in the confirmed spaces include;
Toxic atmosphere
Oxygen deficiency
Flammable or explosive atmosphere
Flowing or free flowing solids
Excessive heat
Hazards and risks associated with working on tall structures
Usually there are many hazards and risks associated with working on tall structures and they
include;
Accidents due to slip strips and falling
6 Robert Roberts, Earthwork: later poems from the Otter Valley, Chicago, Pikestaff Press,2018

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Noise pollution from the working equipment and tools.
Harmful materials
Collapse of the structure
Falling and moving objects7
Method statement of site installation
The site installation team will be made up of four Individuals who will be getting directives from
the manager on matters pertaining:
 Emergency of procedures
 Rules of the site
 Welfare facilities
 Restrictions regarding security
 Possible hazards identification
The process begins with the delivery of conservatory of about 7.5 tons by a lorry which is to be
offloaded on the site by the team members.
 Matters related to safety including the use of gloves to be monitored by team members
 All materials to be checked by the team leader and report any shortage
 The stacking of the components to be done in a manner that reflects the order of their
requirement.
 Initial erection of the frames to be done.
7 Antony Wood, The Tall Buildings Reference Book, Berlin, Routledge,2018

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 This is to be followed by plumping of rainwater pipes that are properly fixed by the use
of brackets
 Opening vents fittings
 Trimming of the metal components of the roofing’s
 Roof glazing to follow
 Finally hanging of the doors
Safety plan
Duty to be performed Requirements N/A Name of individual
responsible
Supervision of site
safety
Need to be competent
safety of the Crane
operation
Need to be qualified
inspection and
design and of false
work
Need to be qualified
Checking of ladders
conditions
Need to be
competent
Use of heavy
equipment
Need to be qualified

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Plans to avoid fall at
the site
Need to be competent
Construction site Risk Assessment plan
Sample Form of risk assessment
Name of the person carrying out an assessment:
Date:
Assessment steps:
Possible/known risk and hazards connected with the operations(Xia et al.2016):
The possible aftereffects: What are the likely consequences? What is the likely degree of the
damage?
What kind of a person is actually or likely to be at risk?

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What remedies are to be put in place to remove the hazard or lower the level of risk?
Are there risk control mechanisms that are likely to fail? What are the possible aftereffects?
Any need for training?
The degree of remaining risk:
What kind of activity to be carried out in the event of an emergency:
Any place or points to refer if any:
Assessor’s signature:
Health and safety legislation and codes of practice related to civil engineering sites
The regulation part 317 part of Federal Register of Regulations states that a person carrying out
any business must check the compliance of workers with the rules regarding construction
induction. Training. This should be done a few days before the construction work begins. Every
worker must have a card showing she/he has undergone an induction program and a certificate
which is issued within 60 days period before the construction.
Justification

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The establishment of proper site installation will be very necessary to ensure that the materials
and equipment used for construction remain safe during the period of the exercise. It should
therefore not be undermined or overlooked. The safety plan that has been recommended will also
help to reduce cases of accidents and death in the period of construction.
Task 3
The environmental, quality, geotechnical and economic contests of a civil engineering
problem
The industrial complex is set to be located close to a river that drains its content into the Thames.
The discharge from the industrial plant will definitely affect the water bodies. The surface runoff
will carry spills of oil, diesel, and paint chemicals into the river. The excavation process will set
loose debris and dirt that will again make water in the river to be turbid. These are possible
environmental interference that must be given attention.
The PH of the soil will effectively change as a result of the acid nature of the pollutants. This
will affect the geological integrity of the area for other construction works. The groundwater
quality will deteriorate and its treatment is expensive and such projects may not be economically
viable8.
How the environmental, geotechnical, quality and economic contexts of the problem
identified
 Containers carrying chemicals like paints, and oil should properly be monitored
8 Ruth. Bosman, Contaminated Soil '95: Proceedings of the Fifth International Fzk/Tno Conference on
Contaminated Soil, 30 October-3 November 1995, Maastricht, the Netherlands, Berlin, Springer Science
& Business Media, 2016.

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 Application of the chemicals for curing should only be done after the protection of the
drains.
 Surface runoff with the pollutants should be managed at a specific place including pits.
The industrial complex is set to be located close to a river that drains its content into the Thames.
The discharge from the industrial plant will definitely affect the water bodies. The surface runoff
will carry spills of oil, diesel, and paint chemicals into the river. The excavation process will set
loose debris and dirt that will again make water in the river to be turbid. These are possible
environmental interference that must be given attention.
The PH of the soil will effectively change as a result of the acid nature of the pollutants. This
will affect the geological integrity of the area for other construction works. The groundwater
quality will deteriorate and its treatment is expensive and such projects may not be economically
viable.
 Containers carrying chemicals like paints, and oil should properly be monitored
 Application of the chemicals for curing should only be done after the protection of the
drains.
 Surface runoff with the pollutants should be managed at a specific place including pits.
Task 4
Methods and techniques used in highway design
Highways are designed in conjunction with the design standards and guidelines. These are
normally adopted by the national authorities. The design standards takes into account the speed,
road grade, types of vehicles, view obstruction and stopping distances. The accurate application

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of the set standards along with accurate engineering judgment it is possible for the engineers to
design a road which is much safe, comfortable and at the same time appealing to the users.
The highway design can be can be categorized into three main parts i.e. the profile, alignment
and the cross section.
The profile of the highway refers to the vertical aspects of the road , which include the sag and
crest curves and the straight grades lines which connects them9
The alignment refers to the route of the road which is defined as a series of horizontal tangential
curves
The cross-section normally show the position and the number of vehicles, sidewalks and
bicycle lanes along with their cross slope.
Methods and techniques used to create bridge foundations and flexible highway
construction foundations
The bridge foundations are very critical since they must have enough strength to support the
entire weight of the bridge and the traffic loads which will be carried by the bridge. There are
different types of foundations that can be used for the bridge construction and they include;
i) Drilled shaft foundation
The shaft foundations are usually constructed within the deep excavations supported by
lining constructed in place and the subsequent filled with concrete or any other pre-fabricated
loading bearing units.
ii) The pile foundations
9 Wilson Tang, Probabilistic Methods in Geotechnical Engineering, London, National Academies, 2015

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The pile foundation is normally slender columns or a long cylinder which is made of
different materials such as steel and concrete which are mainly used to provide support
structures by transferring their loads to the desired depths either by the end bearing or the
skin friction.
iii) Caissons foundations
A caisson foundation is also referred to as a pier foundation. This type of foundation is
watertight retaining structure which is usually applied in the construction of bridge piers. The
foundation is usually a fabricated hollow cylinder or box which is sunk into the ground to a
certain depth and it is then filled with concrete hence forming a foundation.
References
Bosman, Ruth, Contaminated Soil '95: Proceedings of the Fifth International Fzk/Tno Conference on
Contaminated Soil, 30 October-3 November 1995, Maastricht, the Netherlands, Berlin, Springer Science
& Business Media, 2016.
Gardner, John, Earthwork in Railway Engineering, Read Books, Kiev, 2018
Macneill, John, Tables for Calculating the Cubic Quantity of Earth Work in the Cuttings and
Embankments of Canals, Railways, and Turnpike Roads, Chicago, Roake and Varty, 2016

15
Munguia, Alberto, Field Book for Quality Control in Earthwork Operations, Sydney, iUniverse,
2015
Newman, John, Earthwork Slips and Subsidences Upon Public Works: Their Causes,
Prevention, and Reparation. Especially Written to Assist Those Engaged in the Construction or
Maintenance of Railways, Docks, Canals, Roads, Waterworks, River-banks, Reclamation
Embankments, Drainage Works, Texas, E. & F.N. Spon, 2014.
Robert Roberts, Earthwork: later poems from the Otter Valley, Chicago, Pikestaff Press, 2018
Tang, Wilson, Probabilistic Methods in Geotechnical Engineering, London, National Academies, 2015
Trenter, Alex, Earthworks: A Guide, London, Thomas Telford, 2011
Wood, Antony, the Tall Buildings Reference Book, Berlin, Routledge, 2018