Bonding and Hybridization in Molecules

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Name of the Student
Course Name
Professor Name
Institution of Affiliation
Date

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1.) Bonding
1) Hybridization is the process by which the atomic orbitals are fu so as to form new hybridized
orbitals. The hybridization process therefore has an influence on the bonding properties and the
molecular geometry of molecules. Hybridization helps to explain more on the valence bond
theory. The newly formed orbitals have equal number of electrons as the original orbitals (Kasap,
Koughia & Ruda, 2017). The characteristics of the new orbitals in terms of energy and properties
are seen as a summation or average of the old unhybridized orbitals. Methane CH4 has a carbon
with a configuration 1s2 2s2 2p2 meaning it has two unpaired electrons in the p orbital. Therefore,
the 1s and the 3p orbitals will be combined forming a hybrid orbital that will be sp3. For sulfur
hexafluoride the orbitals thar are used are the 3s, 3py, 3py, 3pz and 3dx2–y2 and 3dz2. On SF6,
formation S atom in excited state electron pairs in the 3s and 3px orbitals are unpaired and one
pair gets promoted to vacant 3dz2 and 3dx2-y2 orbitals resulting to formation of six sp3d2 hybridized
orbitals. Ammonia has an unbonded pairs of electrons with also presence of three sigma bonds.
Consequently, this makes ammonia sp3 hybridized as there are S and also three P’s which are
hybridized around nitrogen.
2). Octet rule states that atoms have a tendency of having a total of eight electrons in the valence
orbital. In the event that there are fewer than eight, atoms react forming stable. Formal charge is
given by [number electrons in valence shell] – [the non-bonded electrons]- summation of
bonding electrons]/2.
a) NO2-

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Nitrogen 5-3-3= 0, oxygen double bonded 6-4-2= 0 and oxygen singly bonded 6-6-1= -1
0+0-1= -1
b) BSF
c)
Resonance Lewis structures
(a) nitrate ion, NO−
(b) Ozone, O3

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Quantum world
1) . A surface of a metal which is bombarded with monochromatic light of electromagnetic wave
having a frequency above the threshold frequency), the light incident to metal surface causes
ejection of electrons from metal surface. This process is thus referred to as photoelectric effect.
The ejected electrons are referred as photoelectrons.
Einstein resolved that energy possessed by light particles depends on frequency
E = hν
With h being Planck’s constant = 6.6261 × 10-34 Js. Part of the energy is required to remove
electrons from metal surface and the other as kinetic energy of electron. Therefore: Photon
energy= work function + electrons maximum kinetic energy
E = W + K.E