Exploring the Relationship between Music and Human Behavior

The provided assignment content includes a collection of research papers and articles that explore the relationship between music and adolescent identity, individual differences in musical taste, cognitive function origin and evolution of musical emotions, and the impact of background music on verbal interaction, memory, and reading performance. The studies also examine the connection between personality traits and music preference, as well as the effects of different types of music on spatial-temporal reasoning, mood, and arousal. Overall, the content suggests that music plays a significant role in shaping our identities, emotions, and cognitive abilities, and highlights the importance of considering individual differences in musical taste and preferences.

Running head: EFFECT OF MUSIC ON EXTROVERT-INTROVERT PERSONALITY
Introduction
Recently, various criticisms have been raised concerning the lack of attention to
behavior among social and personality psychology (e.g., Funder, 2001; Hogan, 1998;
Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003; Rozin, 2001). As an example, Funder (2001) stated that even though
there is wealth of data about the structure of personality, the information of basic facts between
personality and behavior remains sparse. In short, there are many important facets of everyday
life that are worth taking scientific attention whereas many researchers have not been providing
sufficient attention. However, Anderson, Henke, McLaughlin, Ripp & Tuffs (2000) stated “Just
as there can be no music without learning, no education is complete without music” (p.2). People
listen to music frequently (Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003), therefore conducting scientific research
on music is laudable. Especially, in the aspect of enhancing academic performance using
background music. A study by Perlovsky (2013) gives a strong support to the hypothesis that
music helps overcoming stress due to cognitive dissonance, helps accumulating knowledge. The
proposed study intends to address this issue to determine if music consistently improves
academic performance.
Positive effects of background music
Why should music have a crucial impact on students’ academic improvement? To
support the question stated, Sinex, Guzik, Li, & Henderson Sabes (2003) stated that music, an
orderly arrangement of sound consisting of melody, harmony, rhythm, tone, and pitch, has been
used to impact mental processes for centuries. Additionally, Chabris (1999) studies attributed to
the “Mozart effect” appeared to demonstrate the exposure to the composer’s music can raise IQ
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scores by as much as 10%. However, when he re-analyzed 16 studies of the Mozart effect and
found that their conclusions could not be supported. An explanation offered by Rauscher and
Shaw (1998) stated that the Mozart effect only applies to a certain spatial-temporal task. Firstly,
the findings collected from the previous research would require further investigation to examine
whether or not the Mozart effect only affect spatial-temporal task. In addition, a reasonable
alternative is provided by the arousal and mood hypothesis (Thompson, Schellenberg & Husain,
2001) which considers the link between listening to Mozart (classical music) and spatial-
temporal abilities to be just one example of a pleasant stimulus that can improve a perceiver’s
emotional state, which can, in turn, affect cognitive performance (Schellenberg, 2005). Secondly,
the results of the present study would result in a greater understanding on how to determine a
better way to use music for academic improvement in student learning process.
Negative effects of background music
Research by Salame and Baddeley (1989) has shown music to be disruptive to short term
memory performance. More specifically they examined the effect of instrumental and vocal
music on the immediate serial recall of sequences of nine visually presented digits (Salame,
1989). However, responses to musical stimuli vary and are subject to previous experience and
sociocultural influences (Paretz, 2006) as personality background may have a major influence on
the effect of musical stimuli. Additionally, there are also other external factors should be taken
into account such as music preferences, tempo and loudness. As an example, a study done by
Wofe (1983) showed that the number of correct response in a reading test depended on the
amplitude of music. In relation to Wofe (1983) findings, another previous study conducted by
Tze and Chou (2010) aimed to compare classical and hip hop music to determine which type of
background music creates the most amount of interference and which type of background music
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creates the least amount of interference. The study found that playing hip-hop music in the
background had the most distracting effect on the performance of a reading comprehension test
compared to no music or classical music, the aspect of tempo and loudness in the background
music presented however, might be an indication of the low result of hip-hop music in reading
tasks.
Additionally, another factor that needs to be taken into account is the personality of the
individual processing the music (Eysenck, 1952; 1967; 1982). Eysenck developed a very
influential model of personality. North and Hargreaves (1999) showed that individuals have
well-defined impressions of the psychological characteristics of people who listen to certain
styles of music (i.e., chart-pop, indie-pop, and classical). Therefore, the personality background
of the participants can have a major influence on the outcome which is what is the present study
is aiming to investigate. Furnham & Allas, (1996); Furnham & Bradley, (1997) have tested
different background music for extroverts and introverts depending on the complexity of the
music. Their results indicated that extroverts scored significantly higher with complex music
while introverts found this more distracting and scored higher when being exposed to simple
music. Furthermore, the limitations of this study have not been clearly specified as to what type
of complex and simple music had been tested.
Does our personality predict music preference and perhaps more importantly how we
process and attend different types of music and how distracting the music is? to conclude the
empirical explanation on choosing hip-hop and classical music in addition to the independent
variable in the proposed study, Rentfrow & Gosling’ (2003) examined music preferences based
on personality types using Short Test of Music Preference (STOMP) and it was conclusively
shown that hip-hop music was categorized in the energetic and rhythmic division, hence, it has
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positive correlation with extraversion personality. In addition, North et al., (2010) conducted a
survey which involved over 36,000 people from all around the world. The outcome was that
classical music fans are more introverted, are at ease with themselves and the world around
them. Introvert individuals are creative with good self-esteem (Terms, 2016). An alternate theory
suggests that music may simply help people focus their attention and ignore noise or other novel
distractions in the environment (Stratton, Valeria & Annette, 1984) and therefore this study
aiming to support the theory whereas classical and hip hop music could have positive impact on
student’ concentration depending on personality types. However, no previous study has
compared the vocal-instrumental in classical and hip-hop music on concentration tasks based on
student’ personality types, which could potentially improve their academic performance if the
present study could conclusively have shown whether or not the types of music mentioned would
have a positive effect on concentration level. Accordingly, several of previous studies (e.g
Salame & Baddeley, 1989; Tze & Chou, 2010) have repeatedly showed negative effect of
classical and hip-hop music in a various cognitive tasks such as reading comprehension and
memory recall tasks. Although it could be explained by greater concentration; concentrate more;
understand more; high test score. In addition, there may be differences in the effect of music on
cognitive performance such as verbal working memory, depending on the type of music being
played, particularly the difference between effects of vocal and instrumental music (Newman,
Hunt & Rhodes, 1966; as cited in Furnham & Bradley, 1999). Therefore, by assessing the issues
in the previous research, the present study should be able to determine which of the vocal or
instrumental in classical and hip-hop music would affect concentration more effectively.
In conclusion, a fundamental cognitive function of music could be its facilitation of
accumulating knowledge. The number of previous research results therefore might be significant
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for understanding the cognitive function of music, its origin, and evolution, although the issues
remaining mysterious for 2500 years (Aristotle, 1995; Kant et al, 1790; Darwin, 1871; Pinker,
1997; Masataka, 2009; Perlovsky, 2010, 2012, 2013; Ball, 2008). By addressing to the issue of
“Mozart Effect” and hip hop music in conjunction with the possibility of having different results
due to taking personality background (Introvert-Extrovert) into account, two questions emerge
for the present study; Firstly, does classical music “Mozart effect” only applied to spatial-
temporal task? and secondly, would there be positive effect of hip-hop and classical music
background depending on extrovert-introvert personality relating to concentration level? In
addition, it was hypothesized that extroverts would recall more nouns in the quick tempo non-
vocal condition and that introverts would recall significantly less than extroverts in both the
quick tempo vocal and non- vocal conditions (Sibley, 2007). Hence, the hypothesis examined
from this study; 1. Compared to the absence of the vocal in classical and hip-hop music
background, vocal may have a distracting effect on concentration test. 2. Putting personality
types as an indicator in classical and hip-hop music, with or without vocal, may addressed the
positive impact of background music in academic performance more effectively.
Proposed Method
Participants
The target sample of twenty-four undergraduate participants would be mixed between
male and female with the age ranged between 18 to 26 years old who comes from different
ethnicity and background.
Design
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This study can be considered a 2 (different types of music) x 4 (different conditions)
between-subjects factorial design, because there are two independent variables. The types of
music have two levels: classical or hip-hop, and the music condition have four levels: classical
with vocal, classical without vocal, hip-hop with vocal, and hip-hop without vocal. The
dependent measures are the concentration levels of the independent variables, which would be
measured by the highest score in d2 attention test.
Materials
The proposed study will be using d2 Test of Attention to measure the concentration level
of the participants. The d2 Test of Attention is a reliable neuropsychological test in measuring
selective and sustained focus of attention (Spreen & Strauss, 1998). Normally, it would take 10
minutes to complete this test.
Moreover, Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) is a questionnaire to assess individual
personality traits (Claridge, 1977). To distinguish the extravert and introvert personality types of
each participant, they will be required to fill in the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) in
advance.
Method of Analysis
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EFFECT OF MUSIC ON EXTROVERT-INTROVERT PERSONALITY
Statistical analysis would be used to summarize the quantitative data and therefore be
able to present the raw data. The data collected would be measured using two-way mixed
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to compare the mean differences between-subject and the
highest score in d2 attention test would determine the dependent variable. The d2 test is a timed
test of selective attention and concentration (Brickenkamp, 1998).
Procedure
The proposed study will be conducting a random stimuli presentation and using pseudo-
random distribution of the twenty-four adolescents which will be assigned to each of the four
background music-typed conditions. Pseudo Random Distribution simulates randomness, but
prevents the event to occur many times in a row, the chances are the same in average, but the
distribution is more even. The experiment will be held in one of the classroom at Cardiff
Metropolitan University. The personality types of the students will be balanced in the conditions,
they will be required to complete the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) to measure
extraversion and introversion which is one between-subject.
Participants will be told that the studies purpose is to see how different types of music
will affect their test score. Participants will be tested in groups at the same day. On that day,
participants will be told of the importance of not telling other potential subjects about the details
of the study. They will also be told that they will be given the results and the purpose of the
study when all the research has been collected. Ethical approval will be sought from Cardiff
School of Health Sciences CSHS ethics committee. The same directions will be given to every
group. Participants will be told to fully concentrate on the test during the experiment. Any
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questions will be answered before the students begin with the materials. After each student is
finished and the materials are collected, the student will be thanked for participating in the
research.
Predictive Result
A number of predictive results were made about this study. Firstly, a prediction was made
that the introverted participants who were listening to instrumental classical music scored higher
than listening with vocal music background during the concentration. Secondly, same goes with
the introverted group, the extroverted group who were given hip-hop music instrumental and
vocal will show higher score with the instrumental music background during the experiment, in
which was according to Eysenck (1967), when music is present in an environment, extraverts,
should perform tasks more effectively since their arousal is heightened to an ideal level.
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