Impact of Historical Figures in Church History

This essay analyzes the impact of Constantine, Pope Urban II, and John Calvin as key figures in the history of the Christian Church. It examines their influence on the events and policies of their respective periods, including the establishment and maintenance of toleration of Christianity, the unification of Church and State, and the reorganization of the Church.

Ministerial Theology: Impact of Historical Figures in Church History
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1
Due to certain critical political and historical influences which took place from A.D. 300,
the Christian Church not only found its footing, but also gained significant control of the Roman
State.1 In turn, this led to mutual dependency between the Church and several other states,
though mainly for the purpose of establishing and maintaining control over specific populations.
Consequently, the purpose of this essay is analyze the impact of Constantine, Pope Urban II, and
John Calvin as key figures in the history of the Christian Church
1. Constantine
The affiliation between the government and religion is complex, dynamic, and often
endures significant challenges for both parties. This is especially notable in the change that
occurred between A.D. 312 to 337 within the Christian Church and Roman State, at the time of
Emperor Constantine’s reign. During the first three centuries after Jesus Christ, Christians began
to garner the influence crucial in affecting religious changes in the Roman Empire.
Subsequently, towards the close of the fourth century A.D., the change took place; the initially
pagan Roman Empire unified with the Christian Church to form an ecclesiastical state. This
section focuses on Constantine’s impact on the events and policies of that period in favor of both
the state and the Christian Church. It examines how due to the Emperor’s legislative decisions,
the Roman State significantly influenced the Church2.
1.1. Supported Christianity in the Roman State
In A.D. 300, paganism was a dominant part of the government, and daily life. It was
accepted as an act of patriotism, and was celebrated nationally by a majority in the Empire. After
the demise of Constantine’s father Constantius, he became Augustusin shortly after. Shortly after
1 Flick, Alexander. The Rise of the Mediaeval Church: And Its Influence on the
Civilisation of Western Europe From the First to the Thirteenth Century. Berlin: Forgotten
Books, 2017, 112
2 Frend, W. The Rise of Christianity. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Press, 1984.

2
the defeat of the remaining three forerunners in the ruling Tetrarchy, Constantine only needed to
eliminate Maximin’s son Maxentius before gaining full leadership in the western region of the
empire. Maxentius’ defeat took place in A.D. 312 in the battle on the Milvian Bridge, after which
Constantine went back to Rome declaring victory in the West. This battle was particularly
significant in the history of the Church since it acted as a religious turning point for the entire
empire. It was during this battle that Constantine openly became a supporter of Christianity.
Constantine besought the help of the Christian God during all his battles, and continued to carry
the Christian emblem at the forefront of this army from one battle to the next. He continued his
dependence on the Christian God till he won all his battles, and was declared the single ruler of
the Roman Empire. As of this period, Constantine was recognized by both pagans and Christians
alike as a Christian3.
1.2. Established and Maintained Toleration of Christianity
In A.D. 313, Constantine and Licinius, who was Augustus in the East, came together to
develop a rule for religious liberality. The Edict of Milan proclaimed religious liberation in the
Roman Empire, and had a significant impact on the Christian Church. The policy not only ceased
the torment of Christians, but also equated the religion with paganism. By so doing, Christianity
became a licensed cult, and allowed Christians to practice their beliefs and convictions devoid of
any lawful ramifications. Additionally, Christians that had been previously barred from
accessing their legitimate rank of authority regained their control and rightful positions. In
general, Christians were also allowed the right to gathering, and received back any possessions
3 Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. 1. London: Strahan
& Cadell, 1789.

3
seized during the period of oppression. Ultimately, the edict reorganized the Christian Church,
and allowed it to become an independent entity as soon as they were allowed to own property4.
The Edict of Milan was, shortly after, followed by other policies developed in favor of
the Christian Church. The clergy, much like other pagan priests and Jewish rabbis, were also
excluded from any military and municipal responsibilities. All Christian slaves were also freed,
and by A.D. 316, numerous dictates and customs offensive to Christians in general were
abolished. In A.D. 323, pagan symbols of Mars, Apollo, Hercules, and Jupiter were removed
from the imperial coins. The decrees following the Edict of Milan all served to ensure the
equality and toleration of Christians and the Christian Church5.
1.3. Protection of the Church
Constantine, as the Empire’s defender of the religious faith, also undertook the obligation
of unravelling all its internal issues. Constantine’s involvement with establishing the Church
doctrine and activities are mostly visible in the events that took place at the meeting in Nicaea in
A.D. 325, as well as at the Council of Arles in A.D. 314. By A.D. 313, the accord established by
the Church was endangered by a Donatist division, which was a radical military minority group
which found flaws with the widely accepted doctrines practiced during the sacrament. The
proceedings in Arles thus served to favor the Catholic majority, who thereafter became even
more influential due to the Emperor’s backing. However, as an outcome of the decree in Arles,
the Church forfeited its freedom. By appealing for help to the emperor, the bishops and other
religious leaders led the Church to the political sphere of influence, and caused Church leaders to
become influential in both the religious and political aspects of life6.
4 Cochrane, Charles. Christianity and Classical Culture. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1957.
5 Flick, 113.
6 Green, Bernard. Christianity in Ancient Rome: The First Three Centuries. 1. New York:
T&T Clark, 2010.

4
1.4. Unification of Church and State
The political importance of Church council relied on Constantine’s involvement and
presiding influence. In a bid to bond the religious leaders, the Emperor directly participated in
the council’s assemblies, thereby assuming the burden of controlling the sessions. This not only
showcased the degree of the government’s regulations on the Church, but also indicated the
swiftness of how it came to be. The Christian leaders, by accepting the support and endorsement
of the state, not only relinquished its abilities for self-governance, but also allowed for political
integration into its daily teachings. As such, the mere observance of the law was soon accepted
as the mere observance of the Christian law. In return, Government law encouraged Church
beliefs. Any adjustments in civic law distorted any separations concerning the doctrinal views of
iniquity and the political outcomes of delinquency. As such, other individuals who were not
members of the Church were subject to Christian laws via Civic regulations7.
2. Pope Urban II
The ideology and impacts of Crusades still currently influences the Christian Church’s
way of thinking. They acted as holy wars in which believers worshipping in the Roman Catholic
Church fought to counter the unbelievers, many of whom were Muslims as the time, for several
eras, and with mixed degrees of triumph8. Such holy wars remain applauded and similarly
condemned by many, a majority of whom still hold two basic perceptions. The Crusades is,
nevertheless, captivating yet contentious periods in the Church’s history. This revolution first
7 Latourette, Kenneth. The First Five Centuries: A History of the Expansion of
Christianity. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1937, 50
8 Runciman, J. A history of the Crusades. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1954.

5
started towards the close of 1095, when Pope Urban II appealed to all members of the Christians
Church to free previously Christian Lands from unbelievers at the Council of Clermont9.
2.1. Initiated Church Crusades
In the Middle Ages, the church believed that non-believers were in the wrong, and that
Christians were doing the right thing. According to Pope Urban II, Muslims were unequal to
human beings, and were ravishers and murderers of women and Christians, all for the purpose of
polluting the Christian Church. He believed them to be nothing more than violent and aggressive
people. Studies show that all who opposed the crusades were branded as wither infidels, gentiles,
enemies of the Church and of God, and pagans10.
The main reason behind the start of the Crusades is rather quite complex. One of the main
reasons was the expansion of the Muslim population after members of the Seljuk Empire took
over the Artukid dynasty, Syria and other Turko-Persian dynasties in 1037, thereby inserting
their territory significantly close to Constantinople11. Their proximity was seen as a threat to
Alexius Commenus, who was the Byzantine Empire, and forced him to seek help from Pope
Urban II for military assistance who resided West of Europe. The Emperor’s petition to Urban II
began an upsurge of human will intended to take on the Middle East. Shortly after the appeal, the
Pope gave his famous address at Clermont, whereby he called to arms the Christian Church
under the bid of Church reunification in the West and the East12.
2.2. Supported Holy Land Crusaders
9 Peters, George. "Current Theological Issues in World Missions." Bibliotheca Sacra 135,
no. 158 (1978): 153-164.
10 Peters, 152
11 Runciman, J. The First Crusade. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1980.
12 Muller, Robert. "The Reaction of Erasmus to the Reformation, Part 3." Bibliotheca
Sacra 55, no. 1 (1993): 55-72.

6
In all of Europe, the cross, as a Christian emblem, was used as both a national symbol in
all uniforms and banners13. By the 15th century, the Crusades were adopted as part of the
Church’s public business. The growing influence of the secular government in structuring and
implementing the holy wars resulted in what is currently referred to as a form of national
crusading, in which the Church would now also serve the national and worldly interests. The
national wars were also accepted as being of equal worth to the traditions held in the Holy Land,
as was previously endorsed by Pope Urban II14. For example, in England, activities and Church
processions previously used in support of prayers and recovery, were now directed towards the
support of crusades. In the 1340s, those who gave their services in the royal wars also received
several privileges, much like Holy Land crusaders, such as exemption from taxes, and an
absolution for crimes committed15.
3. John Calvin
At the start of the twenty-first century, the Church faced the burden of its unfinished tasks
in spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ to other nations. However, this was due to the several
challenges faced by the Church, from the revival of ancient religions in the Roman Empire, to
the resurgence of Gnosticism and post-modernism in the West16. The base upon which the
Church had already reached out in its modern mission movements were also under threats from
hedonism as a form of modern secular culture. John Calvin was a humanistic scholar who took it
upon himself to reorganize the church. His main changes entailed alterations of things like the
13 Ellenblum, R. Crusader castles and modern histories. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2007.
14 Siberry, E. The new Crusaders: Images of the Crusades in the 19th and early 20th
Century. Hants: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2000.
15 Riley-Smith, J. The Crusades, Christianity and Islam. New York: Columbia University
Press, 2008.
16 Gootjes, N. "The Sense of Divinity: A Critical Examination of the Views of Calvin and
Demarest." Westminster Theological Journal 48, no. 2 (1986): 337-350.

7
regularity of Communion, Church discipline, the reintegration of singing as part of Church
worship, and, more specifically, his involvement in the clear propagation of God’s Word17.
3.1. Reorganized the Church
Despite the numerous reforms that had been carried out in the Church, Calvin believed
that there was still much to be done. He set about its restructuring along more Biblical lines
despite the Church’s inability to proceed with any suggestions without the endorsement of Civic
authorities. This is because, as enforced during Constantine’s reign, reforms were only to be
executed in line with the Biblical nature of the correlation between the Church and state. As
such, Calvin prepared a memorandum for four min areas of attention:18
i. The Lord’s Supper
ii. Singing during worship
iii. Teaching of the children
iv. Marriage
3.1.1. The Lord’s Supper
Calvin believed that the Holy Communion should be celebrated each week since he
understood that this was also practiced by the Apostolic Church. However, he soon found out
that people would not be willing to adopt this practice, and compromised on a monthly
communion. He also added to this the issue of discipline in which notorious offenders were to be
omitted from the Table. He suggested that only worthy men should be appointed in all city
quarters to report to the ministers all men who were openly living a life of sin19.
17 Reineck, R. Chronicon Hierosolymitanum,. Helmstadt, Frankfurt: Jacobus Lucius,
Wolfgang Richter, 1584.
18 Reid, Stanford. "Bernard of Clairvaux in the Thought of John Calvin." Westminster
Theological Journal 47, no. 1 (1978): 127-145.
19 MacArthur, John. The Gospel According to the Apostles. Dallas: World, 1993.

8
3.1.2. Singing during Worship
Calvin desired that the Church should encourage the congregational singing of the Psalms
as part of public prayers and worship. During this period, singing was mostly left to the cathedral
choirs, convents, and monasteries20. In Calvin’s view, by singing, people’s hearts would be
moved, whereas the worshippers would be encouraged to pray in line with the writings in
Psalms. He also suggested that children should be taught how to sing so that the congregation
would then learn from them.
3.1.3. Instruction of Children
Calvin taught that children should be instructed in accordance with the Christian doctrine
from an early age. This would be performed through a simple catechism prepared by the Church,
during which children would be brought before the pastor for examination and further teaching21.
3.1.4. Marriage
Calvin, who resided in Geneva during the writing of this memorandum, witnessed the
high degree of immorality in the area. He, thus, stated that the Church’s position on marriage
should be carefully considered, as a means of improving the moral climate everywhere22.
4. Conclusion
Calvin’s teachings spread throughout the Churches across the world, especially in the
missionary movement during the late eighteenth and nineteenth-century. His theology was also
widely acclaimed and used during the Great Awakening in America, and in England’s
20 Pruitt, J. "Method in madness: Recontextualizing the destruction of churches in the
Fatimid era’." Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Cultures of the Islamic World 30, no. 1
(2013): 119-139.
21 Larson, Mark. "John Calvin and Genevan Presbyterianism." Westminister Theological
Journal 60, no. 1 (1998): 43-69.
22 Johnson, Stephen. "The Sinews of the Body of Christ: Calvin’s Concept of Church
Discipline." Westminster Theological Journal 59, no. 1 (1997): 87-100.

9
Evangelical Revival. Similarly, the Crusades initiated by Pope Urban II brought about significant
Reformations in the Church, a majority of which are still under debate in the present.
Additionally, Constantine’s reign ensured the triumph of Christianity. By empowering the
Church, he allowed it to become a key partner in the rule of his empire. Ultimately, the actions of
these three figures brought about important reformations, and the integration of the Church with
Civic influences. Neither could have, according to this history, survived without the influence
and support of the other.
Bibliography
Cochrane, Charles. Christianity and Classical Culture. New York: Oxford University Press,
1957.
Ellenblum, R. Crusader castles and modern histories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2007.
Flick, Alexander. The Rise of the Mediaeval Church: And Its Influence on the Civilisation of
Western Europe From the First to the Thirteenth Century. Berlin: Forgotten Books, 2017.
Frend, W. The Rise of Christianity. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Press, 1984.
Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. 1. London: Strahan & Cadell,
1789.
Gootjes, N. "The Sense of Divinity: A Critical Examination of the Views of Calvin and
Demarest." Westminster Theological Journal 48, no. 2 (1986): 337-350.

10
Green, Bernard. Christianity in Ancient Rome: The First Three Centuries. 1. New York: T&T
Clark, 2010.
Johnson, Stephen. "The Sinews of the Body of Christ: Calvin’s Concept of Church Discipline."
Westminster Theological Journal 59, no. 1 (1997): 87-100.
Larson, Mark. "John Calvin and Genevan Presbyterianism." Westminister Theological Journal
60, no. 1 (1998): 43-69.
Latourette, Kenneth. The First Five Centuries: A History of the Expansion of Christianity. New
York: Harper & Brothers, 1937.
MacArthur, John. The Gospel According to the Apostles. Dallas: World, 1993.
Muller, Robert. "The Reaction of Erasmus to the Reformation, Part 3." Bibliotheca Sacra 55, no.
1 (1993): 55-72.
Peters, George. "Current Theological Issues in World Missions." Bibliotheca Sacra 135, no. 158
(1978): 153-164.
Pruitt, J. "Method in madness: Recontextualizing the destruction of churches in the Fatimid
era’." Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Cultures of the Islamic World 30, no. 1
(2013): 119-139.
Reid, Stanford. "Bernard of Clairvaux in the Thought of John Calvin." Westminster Theological
Journal 47, no. 1 (1978): 127-145.
Reineck, R. Chronicon Hierosolymitanum,. Helmstadt, Frankfurt: Jacobus Lucius, Wolfgang
Richter, 1584.
Riley-Smith, J. The Crusades, Christianity and Islam. New York: Columbia University Press,
2008.
Runciman, J. A history of the Crusades. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1954.
—. The First Crusade. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
Siberry, E. The new Crusaders: Images of the Crusades in the 19th and early 20th Century.
Hants: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2000.