Anxiety Disorders Essay | Assignment

Running head: ESSAY 1
Anxiety disorders are a best characterised as categorical disorders
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note

ESSAY 2
Introduction
Anxiety disorders are category of mental disorders that are predominantly characterized
by substantial feelings of dread and anxiety. Anxiety refers to trepidation or worries about
impending future, and fear manifested in the form of response to contemporary events. Anxiety
disorders have been identified as one of the most prevalent types of psychiatric disorders
and have a present worldwide prevalence of approximately 7.3% (Thibaut, 2017). Though they
are mental disorders, under most circumstances, anxiety disorders lead to physical symptoms like
an increase in heart rate and tremor. There are different types of anxiety disorders that are social
anxiety disorder, panic disorder, separation anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder,
selective mutism, agoraphobia, and specific phobia (Hedges, Farrer, Bigler & Hopkins,
2019). Nonetheless, difference between the aforementioned disorders is primarily dependent on
the signs and symptoms, and individuals frequently suffer from more than one type of anxiety
disorder. Research evidences also highlight that there exists high comorbidity between anxiety
disorder, particularly panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder with other psychiatric
disorders like depression (Eysenck & Fajkowska, 2018).
Symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder and generalized anxiety disorder also overlap
(Byllesby, Charak, Durham, Wang & Elhai, 2016). As a direct consequence anxiety disorders
typically remain underdiagnosed standard not appropriately treated in primary care facilities.
Hence, it can be stated that, anxiety disorders are discrete, however they have overlapping signs
and symptoms with other disorders. This essay will focus on the factors that underpin the onset
and development of anxiety disorder, following which will elaborate on difference treatment
approaches and the reliability utility and validity of the Diagnostic criteria.

ESSAY 3
Diagnosis
Anxiety disorders are generally thought to be chronic mental health conditions that begin
from an early stage or after a particular triggering event. They are prone to increase their
manifestation manifold when an individual is frequently subjected to stress. The words fear and
anxiety are used interchangeably; however, have distinct meanings (Rabinak et al., 2017). While
fear refers to the physiological and emotional response of an individual to an external threat,
anxiety refers to an unpleasant emotional condition where the cause cannot be either
appropriately recognized, or it is perceived to be unavoidable or uncontrollable.
Anxiety disorder diagnosis is principally difficult owing to the fact that there are no
objective biomarkers and the symptoms are expected to be manifested by the affected individuals
for a minimum duration of six months, to be appropriately diagnosed. Anxiety disorders are
diagnosed with the use of different questionnaires such as, Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI),
Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 (GAD-7), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), and the Zung
Self-Rating Anxiety Scale. In contrast, there are other questionnaires used for both depression
and anxiety measurement like Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ), Hospital Anxiety and
Depression Scale (HADS), Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale. The BAI comprises of 21 multiple
choice self-reported questions that enquire about common anxiety symptoms that a subject has
experienced in the past week. While high scores (26-63) provide an indication of severe anxiety,
scores within 0-7 suggest minimal anxiety (Saal, Kagee & Bantjes, 2019). Low reliability of this
questionnaire and can be accredited to the fact that despite anxiety comprising of several
components like somatic, effective, cognitive, and behavioural, this tool takes into consideration
only somatic and cognitive component (Clark et al., 2016). While the somatic subscale assesses
physiological arousal, the latter determines impairment in cognitive functioning and fearful

ESSAY 4
thoughts. It is also criticized for the emphasis that it places on physical symptoms. It has also
been found that in primary care patients with anxiety disorders; BAI has been associated with
measurement of depression thus, indicating its failure in adequately differentiating between the
overlapping symptoms (Phan et al., 2016).
On the contrary, STAI is a likert scale that comprises of 40 questions assessing trait or
state anxiety. It coordinates highest scores with increased level of anxiety, and is predominantly
used by clinicians for diagnosing anxiety in individuals belonging to very socio-economic
backgrounds. In addition, it also proves beneficial in discriminating between depression and
anxiety symptoms (Booth, Sharma & Leader, 2016). One significant limitation is that since it
characterizes anxiety that is present in individual since a long time, it becomes particularly
problematic for clinicians to detect changes that have occurred over a comparatively short
duration (Al-Yateem & Brenner, 2017). Usefulness and reliability of the GAD-7 can be
associated to the fact that it comprises of seven items that evaluate the severity of symptoms,
based on response of the subjects. Scores of 5, 10, and 15 represent mild, moderate and severe
anxiety. Although this self-administered questionnaire is sensitive for assessment of generalized
anxiety disorder, it cannot be e used for replacing clinical assessment (Plummer, Manea, Trepel
& McMillan, 2016).
This is in contrast to the HAM-A, which is used for determining feasibility of
anxiety. Despite the wide availability of this psychological questionnaire that is based on
clinician rated scale, significant issues are associated with interpretation of the result.
Administration of the tool influences the subject by the pattern of explaining a particular
question (Zimmerman et al., 2017). Additionally, this tool was developed prior to the DSM-III
that replaced generalized anxiety disorder to a disorder of worry. Not only does it become

ESSAY 5
difficult to evaluate nonverbal symptomatology of the patient, but when administered through
the computer, it becomes problematic to assess nonverbal body language that is imperative for
anxiety disorder diagnosis (Doshi, Hegde & Desai, 2019).
Similarly, low reliability of the HAD can be associated to its use for both depression and
anxiety determination. Researchers subsequently question the factor structure of this particular
scale, in addition to criticizing the overreliance of the tool on anhedonia, which is considered as
the principal symptom of depression (Langvik, Hjemdal & Nordahl, 2016). The PHQ also has
low utility and reliability for diagnosis of anxiety disorders, since it is used as a screening tool
for a range of mental health disorders like depression, eating, alcohol, and somatoform disorder.
There is lack of evidence about its sensitivity and use in Hispanic population (Alpizar, Plunkett
& Whaling, 2018). In addition, the self-reported questionnaire is subject to bias, due to
retrospective recall and social desirability, which might often lead to incorrect diagnosis of
mental health condition. Thus, it can be stated that questionnaires that are used for diagnosis of
generalized anxiety disorder are not reliable due to overlapping symptoms and comorbidity.
Factors underpinning development
Anxiety disorders have been associated with alcohol abuse, which under most
circumstances improves with abstinence for long duration. The fact that anxiety disorder
overlaps with depression can be explained by the association between substance abuse and
depression as well. Alcohol, caffeine, and benzodiazepine dependence has been found to worsen
anxiety disorder that predominantly occurs during the withdrawal stage, and can even
persist when an individual reports post-acute withdrawal syndrome (de Matos et al., 2018).
Consumption of caffeine also worsens anxiety disorders, particularly panic disorder, and
individuals suffering from the condition typically demonstrate high sensitivity to caffeine.

ESSAY 6
However, the symptoms overlap with caffeine induced anxiety disorder that is a particular
subclass of the diagnostic criteria (Lee et al., 2018).
On certain circumstances, anxiety disorders have been identified to be the adverse effect
of an underlying neuroendocrine system that leads to hyperactivity of the nervous system such
as, hyperthyroidism or pheochromocytoma (Alguire, Chbat, Forest, Godbout & Bourdeau, 2018).
Not only do anxiety disorders originate as direct response to stressors of life like chronic
physical disease, monetary stress, social interaction, poor body image, and, ethnicity but also
acts in the form of risk factors for cardiovascular complication and dementia during aging.
At times, anxiety disorders are diagnosed in individuals who have been subjected to
traumatic experience in their childhood or adolescence. Cases of anxiety disorders are expected
to occur due to an evolutionary mismatch that is commonly referred to as psychopathological
mismatch that occurs when a person has characteristics that were adapted for a particular
environment, which differs from the original environment (Montgomery, 2018). Despite the fact
that anxiety reaction might have originated in order to provide assistance to respond to life
threatening situation, a strong reaction can be elicited in extremely sensitive persons, in the
Western culture on bad news.
On the contrary, biological mechanism involves a decrease in the level of
neurotransmitter GABA that reduces central nervous system activity, thereby directly
contributing to anxiety disorders (Liu et al., 2018). In addition, the amygdala is considered to
play an important role in processing of anxiety and fear, and its function gets disrupted during
manifestation of such disorder. Upon entry of sensory information into the amygdala through the
basolateral complex nuclei, sensory associated fear memories are processed by the basolateral

ESSAY 7
complex, and are also communicated in other regions of the brain like the sensory cortices and
medial prefrontal cortex (Morena et al., 2019). Individuals suffering from anxiety disorders also
demonstrate less distinct connections to the region of cerebellum, hypothalamus, and brain stem,
with more grey matter located in the central nucleus. Reduced connectivity of the amygdala
region with cingulate and insular areas that predominantly control stimulus salience also
contribute to anxiety disorders.
Treatment approaches and models
The Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) research framework has been formulated for
investigating a range of mental disorders, and it integrates several stages of information
beginning from genomics, to self-report, to circuit and behaviour for exploring the basic
functioning dimensions, which span the entire human behaviour range from normal to abnormal.
The model is not developed to act in the form of a diagnostic tool (Kozak & Cuthbert, 2016).
Rather, is it developed for replacing the existing diagnostic systems. The principal goal of this
model is to gain a sound understanding of the nature of mental illness, in relation to different
degrees of executive dysfunction in biological and psychological systems. The framework is
typically implemented in the form of a matrix that comprises of a dynamic structure, focusing on
six significant areas of human functioning namely, negative valance, and positive valance,
system for social processes, cognitive system, sensorimotor system and arousal or regulatory
system (Carcone & Ruocco, 2017).
Each element comprises of different behavioural constructs that are measured with the
help of different variables or unit of analysis that comprise of behavioural, physiological,
genetic, and self-reported values. Conventionally mental illnesses have long been thought of as
disorders that are typically diagnosed based on the kind of symptoms, and the existence of

ESSAY 8
impairment or distress (Clark, Cuthbert, Lewis-Fernández, Narrow & Reed, 2017). Despite
diagnosis following this criteria there are problems with heterogeneity, since individuals qualify
in different manners for diagnosis of a symptom based disorder. In addition, taking into
consideration the overlapping symptoms with different disorders like depression or PTSD, there
occurs a phenomenon of comorbidity. Therefore, with the aim of obtaining a complete spectrum
of a mental disorder it is imperative for exploring dimensional conceptualizations.
Not only does the RDoC model provide heuristic view of mental illness, but also offers
comprehensive strategies that help in investigating the etiopathology of the disorder. Findings
presented by Frank, Jacobson, Hurley and McKay (2017) suggested that the cyclical patterns of
anxiety were observed in similar frequency for both anxiety disorders and NAC group. However,
the latter reported a significant dampening of anxiety. Eventually, subjects in the NAC
group demonstrated increased regulatory capacity, such that there was a quick down-regulation
of anxiety, unless they were able to reach equilibrium, thus highlighting the significance of the
model. Use of this model can be cited as a replacement of DSM diagnosis that lacks validity.
Therefore, it begins with contemporary understandings of brain behaviour association, and
correlates them to particular clinical phenomenon.
Mindfulness therapy places an emphasis on purposely bringing the attention of the clients
to circumstances that occurred at present, without any form of judgment, and this is commonly
accomplished through training and meditation. Notwithstanding the fact that mindfulness therapy
has been found effective in management of anxiety disorders by bringing about a decrease in
rumination, it neglects the cause behind discomfort and stress, and focuses on adapting the
individual to such circumstances, thereby, making the individuals more vulnerable (Butler et al.,
2018).

ESSAY 9
In contrast, the cognitive behavioural model describes how the perceptions and spontaneous
thoughts of individuals about particular situations create an impact on their behavioral,
emotional, and often physiological responses. Perceptions of individual are commonly
dysfunctional and distorted, under conditions of stress (Dobson & Dobson, 2018). These people
often learn recognition and evaluation of automatic thoughts, following which they are also able
to correct their thinking patterns, in order to accomplish a resemblance with reality. This
typically leads to a reduction of their suffering and abatement of physiological arousal.
The cognitive behavioural model therefore explains the responses that are mediated by
viewpoint or experience, which in turn is governed by individual beliefs, and characteristic
manifestation of social interaction with oneself as well as others. The model focuses on the use
of Socratic questioning procedure to help patients suffering from mental illness to assess and
appropriately respond to their beliefs and thoughts, which in turn helps them to engage in the
evaluation procedure (Kazantzis et al., 2018). This model forms the core component of
cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) that has been identified as a first line treatment for anxiety
disorders.
This psychosocial intervention focuses on modifying distorted beliefs, thoughts, and
attitudes that are reported by patients suffering from anxiety disorders, besides enhancing their
emotional regulation. CBT also places an emphasis on developing coping strategies that help in
resolving the problems which trigger anxiety disorder (Kilburn et al., 2018). Although the
therapy is also used for the management of depression that shows overlapping symptoms with
anxiety disorder, its efficacy for management of the latter has been associated with the direct
confrontation of the patient with feared activities, objects, or situations (Iverach, Rapee, Wong &
Lowe, 2017). It is principally based on a combination of cognitive and behavioural psychology,

ESSAY 10
and the therapist utilizes the model for providing assistance to the patients to explore and
practice strategies that are effective in addressing the recognised goals, and reducing symptoms
of anxiety disorder (Hofmann & Otto, 2017). In other words, the model emphasizes on the belief
that maladaptive behaviour and distortion of thoughts play a significant role in development and
progress of anxiety disorders, and that the related distress can be significantly decreased by
teaching the patient coping mechanisms and information processing strategies.
Conclusion
Thus, it can be concluded that anxiety disorders comprise of a group of mental illnesses,
and result in significant distress that prevents an individual from functioning normally in life,
due to hesitation and terror about particular events or the future. Despite the presence of specific
diagnostic tools and questionnaires that are used for identifying anxiety disorders, they have low
reliability and validity, and are predominantly reliant on symptom-based diagnosis that often
leads to a failure in differentiating between anxiety disorders, depression and PTSD. It has been
understood that and their assessment rarely provides an indication for the mental disorder that an
individual is currently suffering from. This call for the need of creating more robust framework
that would not only focus on symptom identification, but also take into consideration different
domains and constructs that get significantly altered amongst the patients.
Owing to the high comorbidity between anxiety disorders with other mental illnesses, the
procedure of delivering treatment becomes much more difficult for therapists. CBT is the
cornerstone treatment for anxiety disorders, and has also been found effective in decreasing signs
and symptoms of fear, apprehension, worry, and associated strain. However, future research
should focus on developing a particular diagnostic tool that would help in clearly differentiating
between anxiety disorders and other mental illnesses that share similar symptoms. There is a

ESSAY 11
need to examine the impact of RDoC model on effective management of anxiety disorder
symptoms, which can be accomplished by conducting clinical trial. Moreover, research should
also focus on identification of strategies that would help in preventing the high dropout rates of
CBT that has been reported in recent times.

ESSAY 12
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