A Study on University Students' View on Entomophagy

This study focuses on gathering Malaysians conception on the consumption, production and concerns of edible insects. The specific objectives of this research are to identify university student’s views on entomophagy, investigate food safety concerns regarding edible insects, and investigate insects as a nutritional food source.

A STUDY ON UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
VIEW ON ENTOMOPHAGY

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................4
1.1 Research background....................................................................................................4
1.2 Problem statement .......................................................................................................6
1.3 Research objectives.......................................................................................................6
1.4 Significance of the research..........................................................................................7
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................................8
2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................8
CHAPTER 3 : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY....................................................................................15
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................15
3.2 Research design..........................................................................................................15
3.3 Theoretical and conceptual framework......................................................................15
3.4 Study sites...................................................................................................................17
3.5 Data sources and data collection methods .................................................................17
3.5.1 Research instruments...............................................................................................18
3.5.3 Validity and reliability instrument............................................................................18
3.5.4 Research population and sampling technique.........................................................19
3.6 Data analysis and statistical methods..........................................................................20
3.6.1 Chi-square test.........................................................................................................20
3.6.2 Logistic regression....................................................................................................20
CHAPTER 4 : DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULT .................................................................................21
4.1 Demographic information ..........................................................................................21
4.2 Frequency table for view towards entomorphagy (consumption of edible insects). . .23
4.3 Frequency table for food safety concerns in entomorphagy (consumption of edible
insects)..............................................................................................................................27
4.4 Frequency table for nutritional knowledge of edible insects .....................................33
4.5 Frequency table for acceptance towards entomophagy.............................................38
4.5.8 Frequency table for whether insects can be eaten as a meal...................................46
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4.6 Frequency table for general knowledge of respondents.............................................55
4.7 Chi – square test analysis ...........................................................................................56
CHAPTER 5 : CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...............................................................62
5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................62
5.2 Overview of study.......................................................................................................62
5.3 Conclusion...................................................................................................................63
5.4 Implication..................................................................................................................64
5.5 Recommendation........................................................................................................65
5.6 Limitation of study......................................................................................................66
5.7 Recommendation for future study..............................................................................67
5.8 Summary.....................................................................................................................67
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CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
1.1 Research background
Entomophagy is the term for consumption of insects. Humans have harvested the
pupae, larvae, eggs and adults of a variety of insect species from forests, swamps,
deserts and other suitable insect habitats as food for thousands of years. With the global
population estimated to rises significantly so will the global food consumption, resulting
in a greater utility and necessity of food security (Tripathi, Mishra, Maurya, Singh, &
Wilson, 2019). The concept of food security is to upsurge the supply of food. Recent
reports and studies recommends that insects would be a viable source of nutrition’s for
the foreseeable future. The UN released a detailed report written by the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) regarding edible insects as the
future prospects for food security highlighting every aspects about the current stand on
entomophagy and the possible ways of implementing entomophagy in modern society
(United Nations, 2013).
To meet the future demand for food security it is also important to take into
account the environmental impact of food production along with the nutritional factors.
Conventional food such as lamb, beef or pork are great sources of protein however the
production of these food will heavily impacts the environment negatively. Entomophagy
offers an innovative approach to increase food yield at a low impact towards the
environment and is in general nutritionally comparable to conventional meat. Farming
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insects produces far fewer greenhouse gases and utilizes little land (Myers & Pettigrew,
2018).
The practice of entomophagy is predominant in many parts of the world such as
Latin America, Asia and Africa however it is relatively considered as bizarre in most
part of the modern world and western culture. These consumers consider the
consumption of insects as food to be disgusting as insects are viewed as filthy (C & M,
2017). However while negative perception towards entomophagy is common, the
gimmick of insects as culinary breakthrough might raise interest for certain consumers
(Tan & House, 2018).
There is very little documentation of edible insects and insect consumption in
Malaysia unlike our neighboring countries such as Thailand, Indonesia, Laos,
Cambodia, Vietnam etc. Entomophagy is not a common practice here (Ismail, 2015).
However the consumption of insects as food has actually been practiced in Malaysia for
generations, although it has been confined to certain regions and has never really been
widespread throughout Malaysia. Sabah, Sarawak and the northern part of Kelantan
bordering Thailand delight in a local delicacy of sago worms and grasshoppers. These
sago worms are usually eaten either raw or fried and its flavors are commented with the
taste of chicken. The consumption of insects and worms aren’t all that new in most part
of South East Asia but with the rising interest of the use of insects at restaurants in
Europe and US the consumption of insects is gaining popularity will Malaysians adapt
this trend (Jensen & Lieberoth, 2018). The choice for insects are not just for its taste but
for also for its practicality and sustainability. The standing of insects as an appreciated,
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habitually consumed food can be the result culinary knowledge, wider cultural
acceptance, established routines of food provisioning and the availability, price, form
and taste of products (Menozzi, Sogari, Veneziani, Simoni, & Mora, 2017).
1.2 Problem statement
Consumption of edible insects is viewed as a disgusting food source despite the
claims of its nutritional worth and sustainability perk however a lot of restaurants and
food manufacturers are embracing insects as food to explore new flavors and in hopes to
change the perception of edible insects. It is predicted that insects would be the food of
the future as a source for protein and Malaysians may have to adapt to it at one point.
(UnitedNations, 2013)
As it stands there is little documentation about Malaysian cognizance towards
entomophagy (Ismail, 2015). Since the FAO report, several countries such as
Netherlands, Belgium and Turkey ran research and survey on people’s opinion on
entomophagy. There has been no similar research in Malaysia.
1.3 Research objectives
This study focuses on gathering Malaysians conception on the consumption,
production and concerns of edible insects. The specific objectives of this research are to
identify;
 To determine university student’s views on entomophagy.
 To investigate food safety concerns regarding edible insects.
 To investigate insects as a nutritional food source.
Research questions
This study will attempt to answer the following research questions;
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 What are the current views of university students about entomophagy?
 How to investigate the food safety concerns for consuming edible
insects?
 What are the nutritional value of insects as a food of source?
1.4 Significance of the research
This research will allow students to attain knowledge of entomophagy and its
potential as a food. The exposure of entomophagy to students presents a possible
strategy to create a demand for insects as food. The use of insects as an alternate food
source can provide food security for the future while conserving environmental
sustainability of farming. Little research is done in Malaysia on effective strategies in
promoting implementation of this practice, specifically among students. The objective of
this study is to gain the entomological knowledge of students as due to the rising interest
in entomophagy in modernized countries, the core purpose of this research is to study
the knowledge, expectations and perception about entomophagy from a specific target
group made up of young people. This research will provides insights into the younger
generation current perspective about entomophagy and its implications for future
culinary trends.
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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The possible use of edible insects seems to be really important in terms of
safeguarding global security as population would increase so would demand for food. As
mentioned by Huis (2013), currently as it stands nearly 2000 species of insects are edible
for human consumption among the 2 billion people around the world currently
practicing entomophagy. For such reason, there has been several studies that
investigated whether consumers (mostly western) are ready to embrace insects as either
a substitute or as a whole as a food product. Tan and et al. (2015) states that studies
concluded that majority reject the notion of consuming insects due to culture and general
disgust and aversion towards insects. Several key factors are responsible to the
abhorrence towards insects for consumption have been concluded which ranges from
healthy safety issues to sensory and psychological aspects. Just as reported by (Lobo,
2019) acceptance of food strongly depends on both extrinsic and intrinsic factors.
Intrinsic meaning the sensory characteristic and extrinsic meaning the biological,
cultural and psychological aspects. That being said as mentioned by (Huis, 2013) food
preference can change over time and it is not permanent in which he examples the sushi
effect that is now accepted by most of the world when most of the world did not partake
in the consumption of raw fish.
Insects have always invoke disgust and fear by modern society. The distinction
between inedible or edible products is largely centered on cultural practices. As Per
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view of Kouřimská and Adámková (2016), whenever a new product is introduced to a
new market or in a culture, people tend to respond with neophobia. For the view of
entomophagy, the neophobia has been explained by the two hypotheses by: one is the
rejection of insects because of their current knowledge of the insects origin and habitats,
and the second is rejection due to anticipated negative post-ingestional consequences.
2.2 The current views of university students about entomophagy
The perception and attitude of insects as food can be influence by internal and
external factors of an individual. External factors would include biological and cultural
influences and internal would include psychological and sensory quality.
The psychological aspect most relates to the feeling of disgust. According to
(Looy, Dunkel and Wood, 2014), most prevailing perception of insect is that they are
dirty, disgusting, and affluent with diseases which coincide with western perception as
insects as pests rather than edible food. Several studies have confirmed that the
perception of younger age group are in fact in line with the perception of disgust
(Balzan, Fasolato, Maniero, and Novelli, 2016). However, according to Gere, G.,
Kovács, Kókai, and Sipos (2017) on condition that the food safety and hygiene is
guaranteed and also masking or disguising insects in food, can be a potential to
overcome the feeling of disgust that restricts the consumers of edible insects as food.
According to (Berg, et al., 2016) this study found that when consumers are given two
choices, one being that the insect is served whole and one is processed so it does not
look like and insect anymore consumers were more likely to consume the processed
insect product rather than the whole insect.
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The variation of disgust also varies upon the species of the insects, insects that
would most likely give a sense of disgust are those seen in dirty urban environment such
as rot, decay and feces. Take for example maggots which are mostly seen in rotting food
by most people, so when presented with the famous maggot cheese of Sicily people
would react adversely. (O., Reade, & Spence, 2015). Most studies of refusal to eat edible
insects are akin to the disgust and fear because of their stigma and relation to contagion
(Rozin & Haidt, 2013).
(Myers & Pettigrew, 2018) Suggest that instead of disguising insects within food
it is better to associate the consumption of edible insects with memorable experiences.
Promoting insect consumption as an exciting or fun activity by developing skills and
technique in preparing gourmet insect cuisines (Huis, 2013). Gael also suggests
showcasing insect cuisines at food fair and event, high-end restaurants, recipes books,
and prominent celebrity chefs to promote edible insects in cooking, cooking classes and
cooking program highlighting and featuring insects (O., Reade, & Spence, 2015). While
the disgusting perception is considered as the key factor to consumer willingness to eat
edible insects, some studies believes that promoting the environmental advantages can
act as catalyst or motivation for consumption (House, 2016).
The food safety concerns for consuming edible insects
Although insects have been traditionally been consumed by humans for a
long time, there is little scientific literature on the food safety of edible insects (Spiegel,
2016). The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) had reported that the food safety
regulation of edible insects has not been studied expansively, this may be because of the
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fact that edible insects are often perceived as traditional foods of indigenous peoples and
are rarely accepted as tradable food (Spiegel, 2016).
As it stands there are more than 2000 species of edible insects, some are
completely harmless while some maybe need extra precaution to ensure safe
consumption. When it comes to food safety several point of view has to be taken. The
potential hazards of insects comes in the form of toxins, allergens, microbial, pathogens
and parasites. Some species of insects are able to synthesize natural toxins and some
maybe contaminated with pesticides. Ingested and the harm might be very deadly.
Allergens are adverse health effects arising from an immune reactions from
certain food. In most cases those allergic to seafood are also allergic to certain insects.
Food allergy varies according to regions. Most cases of insect allergy resulted in
anaphylactic shock. A report by (Pener, 2014) covered cases in Thailand hospitals
whereby 7 cases of anaphylaxis were caused by the consumption of fried crickets and
grasshoppers. The risk of allergy in edible insects post as much as any other food
allergy. The vast majority of consumers eating edible insects will probably have little to
no allergic reactions particularly if there was no history of allergy however edible insects
should still be eaten with caution. (Bellucoand et al., 2015).
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Data concerning microbiology of insects and their prospective for present
pathogens are mostly in studies about insects as pests and feed rather than food for
human consumption. However the insects were investigated for their risk as vectors for
foodborne pathogens in farming environments. As such these data are of limited value in
the context of insects fit for human consumption. However found studies whereby four
edible commercial insects displayed a high microbial load primarily composed of Gram-
positive bacteria, along with total coliforms and fecal (Belluco, et al., 2015). These
insects came from a closed-cycle insect farm made for human consumption. Another
study by Klunder (2012) evaluated the microbiological levels of edible insects in the
form of fresh, boiled, roasted and refrigeration. Klunder found that roasting did not kill
all Enterobacteriaceae microbe and advised that boiling be done first. Scientific
evidence concerning the microbiological safety of edible insects is sporadic, feeble, and
hardly originates from research designed ad hoc. As such, information of edible insect
microbiology in the food setting should be addressed by a definite, targeted research;
precise attention should be focused to potential pathogens, to the effect of correct
storage and handling, and to effective sanitization treatments able to safeguard consumer
health (Belluco and et al., 2015)
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Parasites poses a potential health hazard relative to edible insect consumption.
Parasitic existence was well documented in a review regarding foodborne intestinal
cases in Southeast Asia with the seclusion of six different species of insects. Evidence
from the insect analysis and human autopsies proposed that the possible foodborne
transmission of parasites affiliated to Lecithodendriid and Plagiorchid because these
insects are commonly eaten in the region. Suggestion of hazardous parasites in edible
insects is erratic in the scientific literature. However, an appropriately managed closed
farm surroundings would lack all the criteria necessary for the conclusion of a parasite
life cycles. In every case, and mainly with harvested as supposed to farmed insects,
suitable management before ingesting, relying on cooking and storage, could diminish
risks (Belluco and et al., 2015)
Edible insects for human consumption must be well-thought-out in the context of
safety standards for foods. Thus, assessment of hazards commonly referred in food
process is beneficial and essential to collect current evidence, assess data gaps, and
isolate future research. Edible insect has been consumed worldwide over centuries, so
this history of consumption can be easily adopted. However, vital scientific data on
possible foodborne hazards in edible insects are deficient; searching the scientific
literature exposes the scarcity of information and highlights (Spiegel, 2016).
The nutritional value of insects as a food of source
In early human history insects were a valuable source of protein, the eggs, pupae,
larvae and adult insects were a valuable source of protein with the absence of meat.
(Sponheimer, Ruiter, Lee-Thorp, & Spath, 2015). However protein is not the nutrition
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edible insects are good for. The nutritional value of edible insects can be very diverse
mainly due of the large variety and numbers of edible species. Nutritional value vary
greatly among species and growth stage of the insects and cooking methods. (Finke and
Oonincx, 2014). In some instances the nutritional value of certain species was healthier
than pork, beef and chicken (Kouřimská and Adámková, 2016). Most edible insects
provides adequate proteins and energy in the human diet, in addition to sufficing the
amino acid requirements. Some edible insects have a high content of mono- and
polyunsaturated fatty acids; they are rich in trace elements such as copper, magnesium,
iron, phosphorus, manganese, zinc and selenium, along with vitamins like pantothenic
acid, riboflavin, folic acid, and biotin in some cases (Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013)
Edible insects pose no lack of nutritional value. Insects are a nutritionally
interesting food source, and may be included as a part of a healthy diet for consumers in
the future. They can also be utilized as a nutritional supplement for certain special diets
for example bodybuilders or people trying to lose weight. Adopting some potentially
suitable species of insects into the standard diet requires distinct and standard processing
conditions of their farming as well as the comprehensive monitoring of their growth.
The EFSA has already assessed toxicological risks and hygienic correlated to edible
insects, however more research on their nutrient and composition summary should be
assessed in order to be able to fully implement edible insects as food in regular diet.
(Kouřimská and Adámková, 2016). However, it has to be kept in view that the
nutritional value of insects is highly dependent and influenced by the feed. This factor
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also opens up possibilities for enrichment, regulation, and production of certain insect
ingredients. (Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013).
CHAPTER 3 : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter provides a summary of the research design, population sampling,
and data collection procedures. Research methodology encompasses analysis procedures
and questionnaire that is fashioned to assess the independent conceptual determinants
that effects the perception of culinary students on the on the usage and consumption of
edible insects.
3.2 Research design
This research puts focus on perception and knowledge of culinary students of
edible insects. The approaches and method of this research were quantitative in nature.
Questionnaires have been used to perform this research. Questionnaires methods are
relatively a cheap and quick way of acquiring and processing a big sums of data from a
big populace (McLeod, 2018). Close-ended responses will be composed from the
multiple choice and Likert scale questions. Quantitative method emphases on the
capability to illustrate comprehensive statistical analysis. Surveys will be used to collect
primary data in the usage of the questionnaires, as in regards to the questions being a
multiple choice and Likert scale. By adopting this method it will provide a general view
of people’s opinion on the subject matter.
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3.3 Theoretical and conceptual framework
This research will be adopting the framework from the research of Gael Myers
and Simone Pettigrew tittle “A qualitative exploration of the factors underlying seniors'
receptiveness to entomophagy”
Figure 1(Myers & Pettigrew, 2018)
The working theoretical concept would be as follows.
Figure 2
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3.4 Study sites
The focus of the study is towards university students hence the study site were
conducted at university campuses. The sites in which the survey were at Taylor’s
Lakeside Campus, Monash University and KDU University College.
3.5 Data sources and data collection methods
There are primarily two types of data used in research and these are primary and
secondary data. Primary data consist of data collected to addresses the stated research
problem put forth by the researcher. Secondary data on the other hand however are data
utilized for the purpose of the findings data from other similar research. The benefit of
primary data is that it provides a holistic summary that the research topic is created
under full attention. Nonetheless, it is a very time consuming process to gather all the
data and compile them. Secondary data alternatively, saves time as it is based on
existing research and is a collection of them.
For this study, primary data will be collected. From the analysis of questionnaire
from the participants of the selected universities, the collection of primary data will be
collected from them. This questionnaire was be piloted during in August of 2019.
3.5.1 Research instruments
The research instrument utilized for this study were Google forms and physical
paper handouts. The use of Google form had its advantages such as being cheaper and
easier to tabulate but in terms of getting data was slow. Handing out physical survey
copies were a lot easier and data collection was relatively fast however it was a more
expensive option. A pilot test was conducted in KDU University College first by
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collecting 20 respondents to test the validity and reliability of the questions as well as
any errors. The questionnaire were responded by university students only. The data
collected was then analyzed through the SPSS software.
3.5.3 Validity and reliability instrument
To test the reliability of the questionnaire, 22 respondents were gathered for the pilot
test and a Cronbach test was run to test the reliability for each section of the
questionnaire. In order to pass the reliability test the value of the Cronbach Alpha needs
to be >0.8 The result was as follows.
1. Reliability for view
2. Reliability for safety concerns
3. Reliability for nutrition
4. Reliability for acceptance
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3.5.4 Research population and sampling technique
The research would encompass university student candidates within KDU University
College, Shah Alam, Taylor’s University Lakeside Campus, and Monash University.
An estimate of 384 responses was attained for this research through survey questionnaire
dependent on the sample size table of Krejcie and Morgan as there are over 1 million
university students in Malaysia (Education, 2019). Stratified random sampling
technique will be used for this research. Large sample size can be a representation of the
population. This sampling call for population to appropriately partake in the study and
data was collected after as the target group is a specific group with different background.
3.6 Data analysis and statistical methods
The data collected will be process through the SPSS software and certain tests will
testify against the data collected. The purpose of these test to identify the correlations
between the subsets of the questionnaire and how it ultimately affect students acceptance
towards entomophagy.
3.6.1 Chi-square test
This Chi-Square statistical test is commonly used for assessing correlation between
variables. The test is suitable for this study is due to the quantitative method nature that
is utilized and the level of measurement uses of nominal data. It is denoted as an
independent if the result in not having a correlation in the population. Chi-square
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statistics is repetitively utilized to inspect Cross Tabulation with its test of Independence
variables. Cross tabulation characterizes the utilization of two categorical variables
concurrently, likewise a crossings of variable categories variables resulted in the table
cells. The cross tabulation gathered is through SPSS.
3.6.2 Logistic regression
Logistic regression acts as an all for all analytical data. It is appropriate to be
utilized when dependent variable is binary. Logistic Regression explains data by
testifying the relationship from one dependent variable to two or more independent
variable. Given the expectations binary logistics regression would be if the dependable
variable is dichotomous by nature.
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CHAPTER 4 : DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULT
The questionnaire consist of 6 different sections and 39 questions which are Section A:
Demographic, Section B: View towards Entomophagy (Consumption of edible insects)
Section C: Food Safety concerns in entomophagy, Section D: Nutrition of edible insects,
Section E: Acceptance towards entomophagy, Sect ion F: General Questions. The
Cronbach’s Alpha of the whole set of questionnaire is 0.887.
4.1 Demographic information
This section consist of the data accumulated regarding the demographic
information of the respondents.
4.1.1 Demographic information – age group
Table 1 - Demographic Information (Age Groups)
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About 384 people has responded to answer this set of questionnaire through random
sampling. In this collected data of people, there is 8.9% (34) of respondents are below
17 years old, while 64.3% (247) of respondents are between 18 – 21 years old,
21.1%(81) are between 22 – 25 years old, 5.5%(21) are between 26 – 29 years old and
the remaining 0.3%(1) is older than 30 years old.
4.1.2 Demographic information - gender
Table 2 - Demographic Information (Gender)
Within the 384 respondent’s, 48.4% (186) of respondents were male,
while the remaining 51.6% (198) of respondents were female.
4.1.3 Demographic information - education level
Table 3 - Demographic Information (Educational Level)
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Within the 384 respondents, 41.7% (160) of the respondents are Diploma sudents, and
52.1% (200) of the respondents are degree students, 4.9%(19) are pursuing Master’s and
1.3% are Ph.D.
4.1.4 Demographic information – ethnicity
Table 4 - Demographic Information (Ethnicity)
Of the 384 respondents 19.8%(76) were of Malays ethnicity, 49.7%(191) were Chinese,
12.2% (47) were Indians, 0.8%(3) were Iban, 6.5%(25) were Kadazan, 10.9%(42)
identified as others. The majority of the respondents were Chinese as the area survey
were private institutions.
4.2 Frequency table for view towards entomorphagy (consumption of edible insects)
4.2.1 Frequency for eagerness to try new food
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Table 5 – View towards entomophagy (Eager to try)
To measure respondents attitude towards trying new food of any kind, respondents were
asked to rate their eagerness to try new food. Within the 384 respondents 3.9 %( 15)
were very reluctant to try new food. 7.8 %( 30) were reluctant to try new food. 28.9 %
( 111) of the respondents reacted neutrally towards it. 33.6 %( 129) were eager to try
new food and 25.8%(99) were very eager to try new food.
4.2.2 Frequency for whether insects are considered edible
Table 6 - View towards entomophagy (Insects are edible)
From the table it illustrates that 39.3 %( 151) of the respondents agree and strongly
agrees that certain insects are edible. While 33.6 %( 129) of the respondents disagree
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and strongly disagree that insects can be edible. 27.1 %( 104) were neutral on the issue
of insects being edible. As mentioned by (Finke & Oonincx, 2014) there are more 6000
insects species that are edible given proper preparation. The results however shows that
over a third of the respondent’s would not consider insects to be edible.
4.2.3 Frequency for whether respondents believe that over 2 billion people
consumes insects
Table 7 - View towards entomophagy (2 Billion people eating insects)
This questions asks whether respondents would believe that over 2 billion people
consume insects on a regular basis according to (UnitedNations, 2013). About 26.6 %
(102) totally disagree with this fact however 33.9 % (130) of the respondents agree with
this fact and are aware of it. The remaining 39.9 % (152) are neutral towards the notion.
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4.2.4 Frequency for whether respondents believe that the FAO is encouraging
people to eat insects
Table 8 - View towards entomophagy (FOA encouragement)
This questions asks whether respondents would are aware that the FOA would
encourage the consumption of edible insects. About 26.6 % (102) totally disagree with
this fact however 33.9 % (130) of the respondents agree with this fact and are aware of
it. The remaining 39.9 % (152) are neutral towards the notion.
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4.2.5 Frequency for whether respondents are aware that insects are consumed in
Malaysia
Table 9 - View towards entomophagy (Malaysian consuming insects)
This questions asks whether respondents are aware that Malaysians in Sabah, Sarawak
and Kelantan consumes insects. From the results about 22.9 % (88) totally disagree that
insects are being consumed in Malaysia however 44.3 % (170) of the respondents agree
with this fact and are aware of it. The remaining 32.8 % (126) are neutral towards this
information.
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4.3 Frequency table for food safety concerns in entomorphagy (consumption of edible
insects)
4.3.1 Frequency table for whether insects can be detrimental to health
Table 10 –Food Safety Concerns in Entomophagy (Detrimental)
The question asks whether eating insects can be detrimental to health. According
to (Rumpold & Schlüter, 2013) and (Belluco, et al., 2015) the risk of eating insects
depends on the species and preparation technique. However from the table above 29.4 %
(113) disagree that eating insects can be harmful to health but 26.9 % (103) agree that
eating insects can be harmful to health. Almost half agree and half disagree, the
remaining 43.8% (168) were neutral which could reflect that meant yes and no
depending on the insects.
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4.3.2 Frequency table for whether eathing raw insects can be safe
Table 11 –Food Safety Concerns in Entomophagy (Raw insect consumption safe)
However from the table above 65.9 % (253) of the respondents disagree that raw
insects is safe to consume and 12.8 % (45) agrees that it’s safe to consume raw insect.
Referring back to both Rumphold and Belluco safety depends on species and
preparation, raw insects tends to be more risky as there can be more factors when it
comes to poisoning.
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4.3.3 Frequency table for whether allergies are a concern in entomophagy.
Table 12 –Food Safety Concerns in Entomophagy (Allergy Concerns)
From the table above the questions asked the allergy concerns of the respondents.
A large majority of 61.7 % (237) agrees that allergies are a major concern when it comes
to eating insects and a small 18.2 % (77) disagree that allergy is an issue when
consuming insects. The remaining respondents remained neutral, 20.1% (77).
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4.3.4 Frequency table for whether pathogens are a concern in entomophagy.
Table 13 –Food Safety Concerns in Entomophagy (Pathogens Concerns)
From the table above the questions asked the pathogen concerns of the
respondents. A large majority of 57.8 % (222) agrees that pathogens are a major concern
when it comes to eating insects and a small 12.2 % (47) disagree that pathogen is an
issue when consuming insects. The remaining respondents remained neutral, 29.9%
(115).
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4.3.5 Frequency table for whether parasites are a concern in entomophagy.
Table 14–Food Safety Concerns in Entomophagy (Parasites Concerns)
From the table above the questions asked the parasitic concerns of the respondents.
Overwhelmingly a large majority of 70.6% (271) agrees that parasites are a major
concern when it comes to eating insects and a small 9.3 % (26) disagree that parasites is
an issue when consuming insects. The remaining respondents remained neutral, 20.1%
(77).
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4.3.6 Frequency table for whether the risk preparing and eating insects is just the
same as any other food.
Table 15 –Food Safety Concerns in Entomophagy (Risks)
From the table the respondents review whether eating insects are more risky than
conventional food. A majority of 43.5 % (167) disagree stating that eating insects is
more risky than conventional food. Over a third of the respondents however 36.0 %
(138) agree that eating insects is just as risky as conventional food.
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4.4 Frequency table for nutritional knowledge of edible insects
4.4.1 Frequency table for whether edible insects are a good source of nutrition.
Table 16 –Nutrition of edible insects (Good Source)
About 54.7 % (210) of the respondents believes that insects are a good source of
nutrition with a low 13.5 % (52) believing that insects are not nutritional. The remaining
31.8 % remained neutral on the statement.
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4.4.2 Frequency table for whether edible insects can be more nutritous than
conventional meat.
Table 17 –Nutrition of edible insects (More nutritious than conventional meat)
About 36.4 % (140) of the respondents agrees that insects are more nutritious than
conventional meat more than respondents who disagree with a low 27.9 % (107)
disagreeing that insects are not. The remaining 35.7 % remained neutral on the question.
36

4.4.3 Frequency table for whether eating edible insects is similar to eating junk
food.
Table 4.16 –Nutrition of edible insects (Similar to junk food)
About only 14 % (50) of the respondents agrees that eating insects is akin to eating junk
food while overwhelming amount of respondents disagree 61.7 % (237) . The remaining
25.3 % (97) remained neutral on the question.
37

4.4.4 Frequency table for whether insects has more protein compared to beef
Table 4.17 –Nutrition of edible insects (More protein compared to beef)
About 38.5 % (148) of the respondents agrees that insects has more protein than beef,
less of the respondents disagree 28.3 % (109) . The remaining 33.1 % (127) remained
neutral on the question. As according to (Kouřimská & Adámková, 2016) insects do
have more protein than beef
38

4.4.5 Frequency table for whether edible insects can be used as a nutritional
supplement.
Table 4.18 –Nutrition of edible insects (Insects as nutritional supplement)
About 40.6 % (156) of the respondents agrees that insects can be used as a nutritional
supplement. Only 28.4 % (109) disagree. The remaining 31.0 % (119) remained neutral
on the question.
39

4.5 Frequency table for acceptance towards entomophagy
4.5.1 Frequency table for whether grasshoppers & locust are palatable.
Table 4.19–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Grasshoppers & Locust)
From the question respondents were asked how palatable grasshoppers and locust were.
30.5 % (117) would agree that they are palatable and 35.6 % would disagree that they
are palatable. Majority would find grasshoppers and locust not palatable.
40

4.5.2 Frequency table for whether crickets are palatable.
Table 4.20–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Crickets)
From the question respondents were asked how palatable crickets were. 30.5 % (117)
would agree that they are palatable and 39.1 % (150) would disagree that they are
palatable. Majority would find crickets not palatable.
41

4.5.3 Frequency table for whether sago worms are palatable.
Table 4.21–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Sago Worms)
From the question respondents were asked how palatable sago worms are. 31.2 % (120)
would agree that they are palatable and 43.7 % (168) would disagree that they are
palatable. Majority would find sago worms not palatable.
42

4.5.4 Frequency table for whether silk worms are palatable.
Table 4.22–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Silk Worms)
From the question respondents were asked how palatable silk worms are. 26.8% (103)
would agree that they are palatable and 45.9 % (176) would disagree that they are
palatable. Majority would find silk worms not palatable.
43

4.5.5 Frequency table for whether insects are more palatable when served whole.
Table 4.23–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Insects served whole)
From the question respondents were asked how palatable insects would be when served
whole. 16.4% (63) would agree that they are palatable and 59.1% (227) would disagree
that they are palatable when served whole. Majority would find insects served whole not
palatable.
44

4.5.6 Frequency table for whether insects are more palatable when served in
powdered form.
Table 4.24–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Insects served
powdered)
From the question respondents were asked how palatable insects would be when served
through powdered form. 32.3% (124) would agree that they are palatable and 40.6%
(156) would disagree that they are palatable when served whole. Majority would find
insects served powdered not palatable.
45

4.5.7 Frequency table for whether insects can be consumed as snacks.
Table 4.25–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Insects as snacks)
From the question respondents were asked if insects could be eaten as snacks. 39% (150)
would agree and 35.2 % (135) would disagree. Majority would find insects as snacks
acceptable.
46

4.5.8 Frequency table for whether insects can be eaten as a meal.
Table 4.26–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Insects as meals)
From the question respondents were asked if insects could be eaten as a full meal. 13%
(50) would agree and 67.4 % (225) would disagree. Majority would find insects as meals
unacceptable.
47

4.5.9 Frequency table for whether insects can be eaten as a protein supplement.
Table 4.27–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Insects as protein supplement)
From the question respondents were asked if insects could be taken as protein
supplement. 46.1% (177) would agree and 28.6 % (110) would disagree. Majority would
find insects as protein supplement as acceptable.
48

4.5.10 Frequency table for whether people would reject eating edible insects
because it is disgusting.
Table 4.28–Acceptance towards entomophagy (rejection as disgust)
From the question respondents were asked if people would reject eating edible insects
because it is disgusting. 87.5% (336) would agree and 4.4 % (17) would disagree.
Majority agrees that people would reject eating insects as it is considered disgusting.
49

4.5.11 Frequency table for whether people would reject eating edible insects
because negative taste expectation.
Table 4.29–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Negative taste expectation)
From the question respondents were asked if people would reject eating edible insects
because it is negative taste expectation. 81% (331) would agree and 4.4 % (17) would
disagree. Majority agrees that people would reject eating insects due to negative taste
expectation.
50

4.5.12 Frequency table for whether people would reject eating edible insects
because religious restrictions.
Table 4.30–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Religious restrictions)
From the question respondents were asked if people would reject eating edible insects
because of religious restriction. 39.6% (152) would agree and 15.8 % (99) would
disagree. Majority agrees that people would reject eating insects due to religious
restriction.
51

4.5.13 Frequency table for whether people would reject eating edible insects
because safety concerns.
Table 4.31–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Safety Concerns)
From the question respondents were asked if people would reject eating edible insects
because of safety concerns. 73.1% (281) would agree and 7.8 % (30) would disagree.
Majority agrees that people would reject eating insects due to safety concerns.
52

4.5.14 Frequency table for whether celebrity chefs could encorage people to try
edible insects.
Table 4.31–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Celebrity Chef Encouragement)
From the question respondents were asked if people think celebrity chefs could
encourage people try edible insects. 48.2% (185) would agree and 16.7 % (64) would
disagree. Majority agrees that celebrity chefs could encourage people to try edible
insects.
53

4.5.15 Frequency table for whether food critics could encourage people to try edible
insects.
Table 4.32–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Food Critics)
From the question respondents were asked if people think food critics could encourage
people try edible insects. 49.3% (189) would agree and 16.1 % (62) would disagree.
Majority agrees that food critics could encourage people to try edible insects.
54

4.5.16 Frequency table for whether availability of edible insects in renown
restaurants would encourage people to try edible insects.
Table 4.33–Acceptance towards entomophagy (Renown Restaurants)
From the question respondents were asked if people think renown restaurants could
encourage people try edible insects. 42.7% (164) would agree and 22.1 % (85) would
disagree. Majority agrees that famous restaurant could encourage people to try edible
insects.
55

4.6 Frequency table for general knowledge of respondents
4.6.1 frequency table for whether respondents are willing totry edible insects.
Table 4.34–General Knowledge (Willing to try)
Based on the table 27.6 % (106) respondents are willing to try edible insects in the
future. 38 % (146) would not consider trying but 34.4 % (132) of the respondents may
try edible insects in the future.
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4.6.1 Frequency table for whether respondents consider certain insects to be halal.
Table 4.35–General Knowledge (HALAL)
There were a total of 103 respondents who were Muslims. Of the 103, 66 % (68) of the
Muslim respondents would consider certain insects to be halal and 34 % (35) would not
consider insects to be halal.
4.7 Chi – square test analysis
4.7.1 Relationship between view and acceptance
Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 1684.559a 882 .000
Likelihood Ratio 980.953 882 .011
Linear-by-Linear Association 178.177 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 384
a. 950 cells
(100.0%) have
expected count less
than 5. The
minimum expected
count is .01.
57

Symmetric
Measures
Value A
p
p
r
o
x
.
S
i
g
.
Nominal by Nominal
Phi 2.094 .000
Cramer's V .494 .000
Contingency Coefficient .902 .000
N of Valid Cases 384
a. Not assuming the
null hypothesis.
b. Using the
asymptotic standard
error assuming the
null hypothesis.
Table 4.36–Chi Square test between view and acceptance
The value of test statistics is 1684.559. The above footnote for respective statistic points
out that expected cell-count assumption: no cell had expected count less-than 5, so this
assumption was met. P-value of the test statistics is p = .000 which is lower than
significance level (α = 0.05), thus null hypothesis is rejected. Rather it has been concluded
that there’s not adequate evidence to recommend an association between view and acceptance.
4.7.2 Relationship between view and knowledge safety concerns
58

Chi-Square Tests
Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-
sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 160.500a 72 .000
Likelihood Ratio 150.329 72 .000
Linear-by-Linear Association 9.222 1 .002
N of Valid Cases 384
a. 64 cells (67.4%)
have expected
count less than 5.
The minimum
expected count
is .07.
Symmetric
Measures
Value A
p
p
r
o
x
.
S
i
g
.
Nominal by Nominal
Phi .647 .000
Cramer's V .323 .000
Contingency Coefficient .543 .000
N of Valid Cases 384
a. Not assuming the
null hypothesis.
b. Using the
asymptotic standard
error assuming the
null hypothesis.
59

Table 4.37–Chi Square test between view and knowledge on safety concerns
There is a significant difference between view on entomophagy and knowledge on
safety concerns at x^2 = 160.500, p = 0.000 at 0.05 level of significance, therefore
hypotheses Ho is rejected. There is no adequate evidence indicating a relationship
between view and knowledge on safety concerns.
4.7.3 Relationship between view and knowledge on nutrition
Table 4.37–Chi Square test between view and knowledge on nutrition
There is a significant difference between view on entomophagy and knowledge on
nutrition at x^2 = 777.862, p = 0.000 at 0.05 level of significance, therefore hypotheses
60

Ho is rejected. There is also value of p is less than .05 thus there are no evidence which
proves relationship between view and knowledge on nutrition.
4.8 SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION
Simple linear regression was analyzed through SPSS after all view, safety,
nutrition and acceptance variable was computed. The table below shows the model
summary, ANOVA and coefficients.
Linear regression for View and Acceptance:
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Table 4.38–Simple Linear Progression for View, Acceptance, Safety and Nutrition
According to the table above 53.2% of variance in view is explained by
acceptance, safety and nutrition. There is only a slight positive and coloration between
view on entomophagy towards acceptance, safety and nutrition. In above table
significance table shows that p values of all the independent variables are lower than
0.05 which shows that independent variables coefficients are statistically significant.
Here beta coefficients enable to make comparison of relative strengths of variables. In
all cases beta coefficients are less than 1. Standard error of estimates is .55831 which
shows that chances of error in linear regression is very low.
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CHAPTER 5 : CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter will conclude about entire study including appropriate
recommendations in terms of given topic of entomology. It includes the facts about
knowledge level of selected population in relation to entomophagy so that it can be used
in proper way. It consist overview of the study, implications, recommendations for
future research, limitations and summary of findings that are gained in this investigation.
However, it will includes the some of limitation of this study which are required to be
covered in future investigation. In addition to this, it includes the effective implication in
regards to gained findings of this research that are favorable for young people of country
in order to utilize correct use of entomophagy. It will also discuss about
recommendations in terms of entomophagy which are supportive for people to take
appropriate precaution in order to consider safety concerns. The objective of this study
was to determine university student’s views on entomophagy. Their knowledge and
acceptance towards eating insects. Moreover the limitations of the study and
recommendation for further research will be discussed as well.
5.2 Overview of study
The given investigation is based on knowledge level of people about
entomophagy which is required to be carefully attempted due to relevant safety
concerns. It includes the practice of human begins of harvesting different insects
including their various stages of life such as pupae, larvae, eggs and adults by collecting
them from swamps, forest, deserts etc. Meanwhile, it will focus on the topic of
63

knowledge among Malaysians in regards to production, consumption and concerns
related to edible insects. Basically, it involves the investigation about nutritional value of
different insects for human body along with analyzing various safety concerns.
Meanwhile, the purpose of carrying out this research is to determine the knowledge level
of people who conduct entomophagy so that they should prefer correct insects which has
no side effects of health of people. It is necessary for such individual to gain proper
information about edible insect because many of them are highly toxic. The main
finding of this study is that despite having negative view and knowledge towards
entomophagy surprisingly large majority of the respondents were willing to try insects.
Many respondents had negative expectation of insects as food however insects as food
seems to be interesting enough for the respondent’s to try in the future. This study
shown that the knowledge on safety concerns, nutrition and acceptance of insects as
food is dependent on the view. In contrast to (Yüksel, 2018) which had a low 20 % of
willingness to try this study found that 62 % is willing to try.
5.3 Conclusion
From the study, it has been summarized that entomophagy can be described as a
practice carried out by human beings for consumption of insects including pupae, larvae,
egg and adults species. It includes the nutrition value of edible insects which consumed
by people such as protein due to which they like eat them. However, it consist the
nutritive value of insect to have an appropriate source of protein which is helpful for this
individuals who has a problem of protein in their body. Meanwhile, it consist the safety
concerns related to entomophagy which consist to put extra precautions to eat insect as
food as it may impact severely on human body. It includes that young generation is
64

much aware about insects and entomophagy which is quite good thing to remain safe
while carry out the same process. The findings of this investigation has been concluded
that it consist chi-square test, the p-value is lower than 0.05 so there is no significance
evidence which confirms relationship among different variables and views. It has been
find out that some of nutritional value contains by eatable insects but it is required for
people to remain careful while go for entomophagy. However, it is determine that safety
concerns are must while carrying out entomophagy to fulfill their eating desires.
Pertaining to the data collected in this study, most university students have a negative
outlook on entomophagy and lack knowledge however their eagerness to try eating
insects is quite high (Balzan, Fasolato, Maniero, & Novelli, 2016). Through similar
research such as in their respective region, this research shows that Malaysian University
students consider eating insects as acceptable although lacking the knowledge on
nutrition and safety concerns.
5.4 Implication
The evidence from this research suggests that insects are the source of rich
protein which is beneficial for protein deficient individuals. It is beneficial for them to
improve their health condition whereas but it is necessary for them to gain proper
knowledge about insects to avoid poisonous species form eating. However, the results
of this study indicates that it is required for people to remain careful while conducting
entomophagy to avoid harmful insects for eliminating risk of severe effects of toxic
species on human body.
65

The contribution by this study illustrate the level of acceptance of university
students towards eating insects. By measuring the level of acceptance of university
students advocating entomophagy can be address accordingly. Suppliers and
manufactures could enter the market to promote insectoid products. This study can also
be used to further gauge the research of the FAO (UnitedNations, 2013) for food
security. It contributes positively for health of individual from negative effects of
entomophagy on human a body because mots of insects has severe impact. Although
eating insects is not fairly common in Malaysian culture to date, the results of this study
seems promising for the future with the anticipation of insects as the next super food this
study will give an insight.
5.5 Recommendation
It has been recommended that people who tends to eat more insects and bugs
have high nutritional value as compared to those who does not include bugs in their diet.
For rearing the insects it has been suggested that the strains which can be collected must
have high content of proteins and vitamins. The price and reliability of feed stock can be
more reduced by choosing some suitable strains of insects. In the tropical area it has
been found that more efforts should be given in increasing the traditional management
system productivity. The process which are based on small farming has to be developed
in more effective way so that all individuals can initiate small facilities which can
maximize the productiveness and the framing of such insects can be enhanced. More and
more organic waste are recommended to utilize for smoothing the evaluation process.
High training session advised to be conducted for developing the agricultural practice
more efficiently.
66

5.6 Limitation of study
It has a limitation that every specific eatable insect is not evaluated with its
beneficial effects for human body. Some of the insects have seen to have large and
deadly effect on human body, thus they should not be consumed at any chance. As the
genetic make up of insect and humans are quite dissimilar, thus the effect may not direct
but somehow the antigens associated with such insects may be deadly and can lead to
high health complications. The scorpion and spiders have poisonous sac which have the
ability to cause number of disease in people which have the potential to effect the
functioning of human system. A limitation of this study would be the demographic
group as this study is limited to University students as of 2019. However, the study has
another limitation that selected respondents are not capable to provide proper views
about entomophagy that impact on findings of investigation. Meanwhile, the information
in sources articles and books is not exactly based on selected topic of study which has
been develop problem to gather relevant information that may also have effect on results
of research. People as do not have that much of knowledge about some people which
have a habit of eating insects, thus the participants were not quite confident about the
study and could not attempt to give accurate answers and feed backs as it was expected.
The limited study about the topic was also a potential problem, due to which more valid
and relevant data could not be acquired. Apart form this, more research paper can not be
viewed that much due to less research, which also considered as an potential limitation
in this study. It does not fully represents the average Malaysian view on entomophagy.
The amount of time to learn and research was only 1 year and the number of respondent
collected was limited to a small area; Taylor’s Lakeside Campus, Monash University,
67

and KDU University. Also since Malaysia is a diverse country the balance of ethnicity
was not achieved and results could only reflect the majority of the ethnic group.
5.7 Recommendation for future study
Considering above study, it has been recommended that future researchers to
expand and focus this research in a larger scale. It is necessary to gather more authentic
information from experts about nutrition value and other effects of entomopahgy.
Future research should focus on different ethnic group individually and to cover
different income groups for determining impact of entomophagy on human beings. Also
conduct towards the general public as supposed to just university students. In addition
more independent variables, income level, state etc are required to be considered for
carry out effective study in order to gain accurate findings that are beneficial for
manhood. It is required to focus on eating practices of insects by analyzing their health
benefits or evaluating harmful effects is that it findings can be used for welfare of
people. More study should be focused on making the insect agriculture more productive
and finding more insect strains which can impart high nutritional as well as protein value
which can promote high building and development of people. More research can be
conducted on such domain which can impart more and more knowledge to farmers for
increasing their income and revenue.
5.8 Summary
It has been summarized that the practice of entomophagy is dominantly in many
parts of the world such as Asia, Latin America and Africa however it is comparatively
reasoned as eccentric in large portion of the western as well as modern world. The
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question which are being addressed in this study was to determine university student’s
views on entomophagy furthermore, to investigate food safety concerns regarding edible
insects and to investigate insects as a nutritional food source.
69

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3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
72