Adolescence and Cognitive Enhancement: Importance of Physical Activity

This article discusses the importance of physical activity in cognitive enhancement during adolescence. It covers the changes in brain development during puberty and the mechanisms of exercise-induced cognitive enhancement. It also explores how physical activity impacts cognitive development and the present trend of decrease in physical activity in schools.

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Exercise Physiology
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note

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Adolescence an opportune phase for cognitive enhancement
Definition of adolescence and puberty
Adolescence is the transition state that exists in between childhood and adulthood.
This transition mainly occurs during the age bracket of 10 to 19 years and is mainly defined
as series of psychological and physiological changes in the body and mind of the individuals
[1]. The physiological change occurring during adolescence is known as puberty and it
mainly helps to attain sexual maturity. This physical transition or changes over any particular
individual occurring during puberty is mainly visible between 9 to 12 years. Thus
alternatively, puberty is regarded as the major life transition from non-reproductive juvenile
stage to reproductively competent adult stage [2]. Adolescence stage is extremely significant
in every person’s life as it is in this stage that the brain releases some special hormones that
promote both physical and cognitive development. Puberty and adolescence, the
developmental period associated with puberty is regarded as great physiological,
psychological and cultural changes. This is because, puberty and adolescence is associated
with great developmental plasticity [1].
Brain development during puberty
Recent advancement in the field of imaging technology has lead to the elucidation the
significant amount of brain development is associated during puberty and thus this stage is
treated as a special period in one’s life [3]. Puberty is characterised via physical, hormonal
and psychological transformation. Under this transformation, human brain undergoes
potential changes between the childhood and adulthood. The longitudinal sample analysis
study over 275 individuals (7 to 20 years), done via magnetic resonance imaging showed
significant changes in the sub-cortical region of human brain during puberty. Further studies
in this domain revealed that the pubertal development is extensively associated with the

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change in the structural volume of different parts of the brain in both the sexes. The main
regions of the brain which experience noticeable change during puberty include amygdale,
corpus striatum, hippocampus, nucleus accumbes (NA), globus pallidus (GP) and putamen
[4]. The imaging technique also revealed a striking change in the white and grey matter of
brain between 11 to 25 years of age along with increase in the connectivity between different
regions of brain along with the increase in the activity of the dopaminergic neurons in the
pre-frontal cortex of the brain. During puberty, there also occurs increase in the linkage
between the striatum and limbic system. These plausible changes in the anatomy and
physiology of the brain lead to change in the cognitive and behavioural characteristic of an
adolescent [3]. This drastic change in the anatomy of physiology of the brain occurring
during the puberty lead to significant change in the overall behavioural attitude of an
individual in comparison to that his or her childhood and thereby making him or her more
prompt in responding to questions [5]. This change in the cognitive thought process among
the adolescent due to change in the brain development increases the risk taking attitudes. The
subsequent hormonal changes occurring during puberty further exacerbates the overall brain
development and change in the neurological signalling [5].
Physical activity, heath benefits and cognitive development
Importance of physical activity across the lifespan and why is particularly impactful
during adolescence
Benefits of active lifestyle are not only restricted to physical health. Higher level of
physical exercise is associated with higher levels of cognitive performance among both the
younger adults and older adults. Cognitive functions are the special functions that are sub-
served via the interplay of the central nervous [6]. Evidence suggest that there exist a causal
relationship with the physical exercise and improved interplay between the different

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signalling pathways of the central nervous system and thereby leading to improved cognitive
development [6]. Mild to moderate physical activity like walking has been found to increase
the memory and attention among the older adults [7]. Increase in the rate of physical activity
during adolescence increase the rate of mean cerebral blood flow into the brain this in turn
help in the development of cognitive functioning. Not only this, increase in the overall
physical activity among the individuals who are in their pubertal stage helps to increase the
lactate threshold. This in turn causes an immediate increase in the plasma concentration of
adrenocorticitropic hormone, carecholamines, beta- endorphin and vasopressin in the
peripheral blood circulation which is thought to increase the secretion of neurotransmitter
secretion in the central nervous system causing elevated arousal and thus enhancing the
overall cognitive performance [6]. Additionally numerous neurotrophic factors like nerve
growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor etc is found to get unregulated during
physical activity. These elevated levels of neurotrophic factors plays a crucial role in the
neural growth and neuron survival and thus influencing learning and overall memory
processes which are important for the cognitive functioning [6]. Physical activity also leads to
high physical fitness this in turn leads to higher cardiovascular fitness, larger volumes of
basal ganglia and hippocampus among the children who are in their adolescence. All these
cumulate into increase level of cognitive performance, memory development and thereby
leading to well-developed executive functions for day-to-day functioning [7].
Present trend of decrease in physical activity in school: review
International public health and health promotion organizations have highlighted that
the health risks across the lifespan are mainly associated with the decrease in physical
activity. The globally physical inactivity is found to increase the susceptibility of the
development of type 2 diabetes, breast cancer, colon cancer, rectal cancer and risk of
coronary heart disease [8]. This lack of physical activity and its relation to the development

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of the coronary heart disease is also prominent among the children who are in their
adolescence. However, in spite of the known relation between the lack of physical activity
and the subsequent threat of the physical and the mental health, there is lack of proper
awareness of physical activity in schools. However, the practising physical activity depends
on several determinants like physiological, sociocultural, psychological and ecological. For
example, in schools it has been found that the girls are less active than boys in the domain of
physical activity and the older children and adolescents are comparatively less active than the
younger children [8]. Another systematic review further highlighted that during the past 30 to
40 years the overall rate of physical activity in schools around the word has decreases
gradually. Given that the significant proportion of the total waking hours spent within the
school premises and in performing associated school activities, very less is known about the
physical activity of the students during their school hours and during the school-related after
school activities. In spite of having excellent research and prominent public health
surveillance systems, the present monitoring of the school-related physical activities among
the adolescence is inadequate [9]. Another research however, helped to throw light over the
current trends in the physical activities in schools. It showed that the majority of youth
worldwide now fail to meet the established physical activity standards. Increase in the class
duration and lack of proper game classes lead to increase in the sedentary behaviour among
the children. The sports are held annually and not on quarterly or semi-quarterly basis leading
to the decrease in interest in the overall physical activity or sports [10].
Mechanisms of exercise-induced cognitive enhancement
Exercise induced cognitive development demands both acute and chronic exercise as
evident from the research conducted over both human and animal models. Acute exercise is

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defined as single bout exercise and chronic exercise is characterised by repetitions of bouts of
exercise over time which lasts from weeks to years [11].
Table 1: Taxonomy of physical exercise
Type of
effect Mode of exercise
Type of
physiological
change
Type of brain mechanism
underpinning the effect
Acute Single bout of
exercise Transient
Modulation of the activity
of a neural network
Chronic Regular exercise Durable Patho-anatomical changes
in the brain structure
(Source: 11)
Acute pathway
Single session of exercise helps to increase the cognitive performance via the increase
in the overall flow of blood within the body along with the increase in release of the
neurotransmitter [11]. A meta-analysis conducted by Chang et al. (2012) highlighted that the
acute exercise do not have significant effect over the overall improvement of the cognitive
function of an individual but is effects on the cognitive ability is slightly greater than zero.
The range of cognitive benefits mainly depends on a number of factors that is duration of the
exercise and intensity of the exercise however, the improvement of the cognitive function is
more prominent among the individuals who are physically fit. Effects of the acute physical
exercise over the cognitive development during adolescence are mainly attributed by the
release of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). However, the effect of improve in
cognition is more pronounced in males in comparison to that of females and this is because,
decrease in the level of secretion of BDNF among the females [12]. In relation to BDNF, it

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can further be stated that the increase in the level of the physical activity via execution of the
acute physical exercise leads to increase in the level of secretion o BDNF in the peripheral
levels and increase in the intensity of the physical exercise help to increase in the secretion of
BDNF and thereby promoting modulation in the overall cognitive development [13].
Chronic pathway
Chronic exercise leads to the increase in secretion of the PGC-1a which in turn leads
to the activation of the FNDC5 pathway and thereby promoting the secretion of brain-derived
neurotrophic factor (BDNF) from the hippocampus of the brain and thereby facilitating the
overall development of the cognitive function [14]. FNDC5 pathway mainly leads to the
generation of elevated levels of irisin and this in turn induces the transcription of the BDNF
gene and other neuroprotective gene and thereby leading to the increase in the development
of cognition [14]. Chronic exercise pathway mainly encompasses endurance exercise which
is not only beneficial for the brain health and cognitive function but also promotes physical
health and well-being. The chronic exercise pathway is also reported to decrease the mental
health complications like depression [15]. Chronic physical exercise leads to the increase in
the rate of secretion of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS). The secretion of nNOS leads
to the promotion of angiogenesis in the human skeletal muscle. This increase in the rate of
angiogenesis after the endurance exercise in the human skeletal muscles leads to increase in
the overall blood circulation. The same has been proved by the comparative biopsies
conducted over the vastus lateralis (VL) muscle from 10 sedentary males and 10 males who
are under mild to moderate chronic exercise training. The increase in the overall blood
circulation increases the overall level of neurotransmission and thereby facilitating overall
cognitive development [16]. Chronic physical exercise pathway also promotes neuro-synaptic
genesis which in turn again facilitates better transmission of the neuronal impulses and

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thereby helping the population who are in their adolescences who improve on their cognitive
functions [17].

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Figure: Chronic and Acute Pathway of physical exercise and subsequent cognitive development

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Ceiling effect to the benefits of exercise on cognition? Does it only work on the more
complex task, the lower fit participants or the less apt student?
The study conducted over 30 adolescent between the age group of 13 to 14 years
highlighted that the level of cognitive development depends on a perfect amalgamation of the
level of physical fitness and aerobic exercise. Such that individuals who are more physically
fit are more likely to observe the beneficial effects on cognitive development in comparison
to that of the individual who are physically unfit or leads a sedentary life style. A bout of
acute exercise followed by a period of relaxation helps to increase behavioural differences.
However, fit groups of individuals revealed more interaction between the fitness level and
acute physical exercise in comparison to the unfit individuals [18]. Such that it is
recommended that the individuals who are unfit are required to perform the exercise in more
cyclic bouts in order to visualize promising outcomes in the cognitive development. Increase
in the overall cognitive development can then be visualised by the increase in the overall
attention level or the academic performance [19].
How long does it take to induce benefits as well as for the beneficial effects of exercise to
“wear off”?
The benefits of physical exercise over the cognitive development of an individual or
children during their adolescence is mainly depends on their level of physical fitness, the
intensity and the duration of the physical exercise undertaken. Mainly chronic physical
exercise accompanied with aerobics is found to provide useful results in the level of cognitive
development. Moreover, the observance of the level of the cognitive development between
the adolescents arising out of the physical exercise also varies from person to person and the

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main reason behind this is the difference in the level of neuronal plasticity among the
individuals [20]. In order to sustain the level of cognitive development, the physical activity
must be continued throughout the life. For example, it has been found that the individuals
who are more physically active during their childhood suffers from memory loss during the
adult stages of the life. Increase in mild to moderate physical activity coming in the form of
walking helps to fight against memory loss [21].
Are the beneficial impacts of exercise similar across the lifespan? Does it peak
particularly during adolescence?
The impact of exercise is not similar across the lifespan of the individuals. The
research highlighted that that increase the effect of physical exercise on the overall cognitive
development is maximum during the adolescent stage as it is in this stage that the significant
brain and the neuronal development occurs [22]. As a person ages with time, there occurs
degeneration in the overall neuronal signalling leading to decrease in the effect of exercise
over all overall cognitive function. However, the research has indicated that the physical
exercise during the young adult age promotes healthy cognitive ageing and thus helping to
get the useful cognitive results from the physical activity. On the other hand it can also be
said that with age there occurs increase in the level of obesity among the individuals and this
increase in the level of obesity leads to decrease in the overall impact of the physical exercise
over the cognitive function [23].
Cognitive function
Cognitive functions refer to the high order mental process that facilitate the procedure
of gathering and processing information. In other words, cognitive function have been
defined as cerebral activities that have the potential of leading to knowledge and includes
several mechanisms of information acquiring. Cognitive functions most commonly

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encompass memory, reasoning, language, attention and directly result in attainment of
knowledge and information [24]. Thus, it is an intellectual process that helps an individual
gain an awareness of or perceive and comprehend a range of ideas. The word cognition dates
back to the 15th century when it was used to describe awareness and thinking [25]. The theory
of introspection was elaborated by Wundt, who defined it as an examination of the inner
feelings of a person [26]. Modern neuroscientists and psychologists found his statements as
subjective and chose to bank on objective methods to conclude about human cognitive
functions.
Several inferences were drawn by behavioural psychologists regarding the response of
the brain to some stimuli. These information were collected by observing the changes in brain
structure and functioning, while a person grew and acquired new skills. Furthermore,
neuroscientists also conducted research to gain a deeper understanding of the executive
functions of the brain by conducting comparative studies between brain anatomy and human
behaviour, with the help of fMRI techniques, which illustrated electrochemical differences in
the brain [27].
Top-down and bottom-up processes refer to different strategies of knowledge ordering
and information processing that are used in a range of fields that include scientific,
humanistic and software theories. Sensory input is typically considered bottom-up and the
higher cognitive functions that gather more information from a range of sources are referred
to as top-down [28]. Bottom-up approach is primarily characterized by characterized by the
absence of high level directions in areas pertaining to sensory processing. This process
includes stimulus evaluation and encoding [29]. On the other hand, a top-down process is
characterized by high direction levels of sensory processing, such as targets and goals. In
other words, strategy use, planning and goal directed organisation are some major attributes
of the top-down process [30].

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Subdomains of executive function
Executive function is an umbrella term that generally encompasses the necessary
cognitive skills that help in conduction a goal directed, purposeful activity. It refers to the
cognitive domains comprising of high level decision making and thinking [31]. It can be
divided into a range of subdomains that are characterized by mental flexibility, planning,
response inhibition and strategy.
Attention refers to the process of taking possession with the help of the mind in a
vivid and clear form, out of several train of thoughts. Thus, attention implies the withdrawal
from certain things, with the aim of effectively dealing with others [32]. Attention, is also
mentioned as enthrallment, and is often defined as the cognitive and behavioral process of
placing selective concentration on certain discrete aspects of information, regardless of their
objective or subjective status, while ignoring all other perceivable information.
Working memory is comprised of major brain processes that are responsible for
information storage and retrieval in a temporary manner. Working memory allows focusing
on attention, resisting distractions and also guides the decision making processes. Thus, this
cognitive system is associated with limited capacities that are responsible for the temporary
holding of information, and is imperative for reasoning and behaviour [33]. It is both a
memory ability and an attentional function.
Learning refers to the process or activity of gaining skills or knowledge by practicing,
studying, getting taught and experiencing events. Thus, learning involves the process that
helps an individual to acquire new, existing or modifying information, knowledge, skills,
behaviour, and values [34]. Learning most often occurs consciously or subconsciously and is
a form of an aversive event which cannot be escaped or avoided.

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Cognitive assessment battery
Cognitive Assessment Battery (CAB) refer to a professional tool that facilitates the
study of the brain functions of children and adults, in depth, with the use of several cognitive
tasks. Conduction of such tests help in determining the performance of individuals on
cognitive tasks that is imperative for the diagnosis of a plethora of cognitive disorders such
as, dementia, Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairments. Such CAB are also
essential for defining the patterns and magnitude of changes in cognition, frequently
associated with normal aging of an individual [35]. The assessments also facilitate the
process of bringing about clear distinctions between normal and clinically abnormal cognitive
changes.
The ‘gold standard’ followed for assessment of cognitive functioning encompasses a
face-to-face administration of the CAB, comprised of a series of standardized cognitive tests
that measure the primary cognitive abilities such as, learning, attention, visuo-spatial abilities,
language, memory, and other higher executive functions [36]. Neuropsychological
evaluations are found to consist of numerous measures of affect and mood, in addition to
relevant information that pertain to the well-being and quality of life of the person.
Cognition and emotional processing
Cognitive reappraisal involves the process of rethinking about the meanings of events
or affectively charged stimuli in certain terms that have the potential to alter the emotional
impacts. Reappraisal also appears to be largely dependent on interactions between the
cingulate and prefrontal regions of the brain that are associated with the insula and the
amygdala, responsible for emotional responding [37]. Changes in autonomic responding and
emotional experience are also correlated with concomitant fall and rise of the prefrontal
cortex and amygdala. Subjective wellbeing is often expressed in terms of the quality of life of
the individuals and their self-evaluation [38]. Theories about the subjective wellbeing suggest

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that it is common for individuals to feel good about themselves. The SWB theory states that
several stabilising forces namely positive affectivity, adaptation, and cognitive buffers
maintain the subjective wellbeing of a person [39].
These buffer variables commonly encompass cognitive and positive biases related to
feelings of self-worth and self-esteem, optimism and perceived control [40]. Interaction of
these buffers with the environmental experiences result in maintenance of the wellbeing at a
steady level. Conditions that involve negative influence exceeding the capacity of
homeostasis results in a rise or drop in the wellbeing, beyond the pre-determined range. Self-
regulation covers the capacity to act in a way that is capable of considering the long term
significances, in places of transient feelings. Emotional self-regulation is the ability that helps
people to respond appropriately to the ongoing experiences with a plethora of emotions in a
socially tolerable and flexible manner. Thus, this attribute enables people to control and
monitor their behaviour, thoughts, emotions and alter them in accordance to the demands of
the current situation.
Recent meta-analytic studies suggested for the high prevalence of depressive
symptoms among children and adolescents, aged 9-16 years [41]. Most commonly known a
teenage depression, this emotional disorder occurs due to the developmental and social
challenges that are faced by the adolescents. Depression in adolescents has been identified as
a risk factor for suicidal ideations and more than half of the victims have been found to report
major depressive disorder during their death [42]. Studies have provided evidence for the fact
that rates of depression substantially increase during adolescence [43]. Lower FN amplitudes
have also been associated with increased depression, even on controlling the symptoms and
neuroticism at baseline [44]. Prevalence of postpartum depression was also observed among
adolescent mothers in another randomized controlled trial [45].

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Depression has also been associated with distortions of body image among adolescent
boys. Boys who were of average weight were found to view themselves as underweight or
weight distorted. Furthermore, overweight boys were also found to reported significant high
levels of depression [46]. Rumination has also been found resoonsible for decreasing the
executive capacity of adolescents and leads to their poor performance in cognitive tests [47].
A range of biological and physiological processes occur during the transition from
adolescence to adulthood. Moreover, depressive symptoms are also linked to increased risks
of psychosocial morbidity in adulthood [48].
Cognition, academic performance and fluid intelligence
Fluid intelligence is defined as the capability of solving new problems, using logic in
different situations and identifying new patterns. This form of intelligence is found to peak in
the early stages of life and involves the capacity to identify relationships as well, which in
turn underpin novel problems, in addition to extrapolating the findings with the use of logic
[49]. On the other hand, crystallised intelligence consists of the ability of using experiences
and learned knowledge. Several studies have proposed that fluid intelligence is an essential
component of academic performance due to the fact that the former is closely associated with
general intelligence [50]. This plays a central role in studies and academics, as suggested by
position effect. Two principle components of fluid intelligence have been associated with
verbal and mathematical performance [51].
Extremely intelligent individuals are more efficient in learning skills in complex and
novel situations that results in an increased potential in achieving academic success. This has
also been established by previous findings that determined existence of a positive relationship
between the rates of learning, fluid intelligence and learning in real scenarios [52]. Thus, the
ability of an individual to learn in new situations is the fundamental facet of fluid
intelligence. Several factors create an impact on cognitive function in academics, thereby

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determining the school grads, and other attitudes specific to the academic domain namely,
grit, motivation, metcognition, classroom practice, behaviour, and curriculum [53]. In other
words, school learning is a complex set of interactions between the distal and proximal
environmentl characteristics of a student [54].
Brain training
This cognitive mode of training makes complete use of mental exercises that work
and target the core cognitive skills of the brain. The skills that are addressed in such training
sessions encompass long and short term memory, attention, processing speed, auditory
processing, reasoning and logic [55]. The Hebbian learning theory proposed an explanation
for neuron adaption in the brain that occurs during the learning process. The theory provided
a description for the mechanism of synaptic plasticity that elaborated on the fact that an
elevation in the synaptic efficiency is a direct result of the persistent and repeated stimulation
of the presynaptic cells [56]. Thus, repeatedly performing some cognitive tasks makes the
associated brain areas form stronger associations [57].
Hence, interventions that focus on cognitive training could play a significant role in
improving the cognitive abilities by modifying brain activations. Brain training tasks have
been recognised to play an integral role in bringing about improvements in the processing
speed and executive functions of the elderly. Thus, short term training is directly responsible
for improving higher executive functions [58]. Use of video gaming has been found crucial
for improving the perceptual and cognitive abilities of people [59]. Moreover, studies have
also established the effectiveness of these training activities on neural plasticity [60].
However, one major drawback is related to the fact that although the training improves
performance, the effects are particularly restricted to the specific tasks performed [61].

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Working memory training is conducted with the aim of improving the working
memory of a person. This working memory pertains to an important intellectual faculty that
is linked to ageing, IQ and mental health. Evidences claim that WM training programs not
only effective for the treatment of ADHD and other cognitive disorders, but also for
enhancement of intelligence and cognitive functioning in developing children and adolescents
[62]. WM has shown significant associations with reasoning, decision making and problem
solving capabilities [63]. Furthermore, it is also imperative for the acquisition of skills and
knowledge, thereby improving the academic success and educational attainment. A range of
programs have been designed, based on WM training such as, Jungle Memory Program and
Cogmed WM Training [64]. However, despite the huge success of WM training on transfer
effects, the underlying neural mechanism remains undefined [65].
Cognitive maturation in adolescence generally encompasses a range of expanded
capabilities falling within the category of executive functions. This maturation embraces the
transition from a concrete thinking to abstract forms, better peer interactions, increased ability
in drawing logical conclusions, and renewed abilities of self-regulation and evaluation [66].
These directly enhance the capacity of adolescent to formulate hypothesis, express features of
altruism, design idealistic situations and develop dreams for a good future.
The primary cognitive change is the shift from concrete operational thinking to
abstract thinking. Piaget suggested that this evolution occurs in the form of an adaptation to
external stimuli, demanding production of hypothetical responses from an adolescent [67].
MRI studies have also shown evidences of preadolescent increase in the gray matter, which
have been attributed to increase in synapses, due to enhanced ability of the adolescents in
abstract thinking [68].

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Exercise and its role in neuroplasticity
The human brain has the capability of adapting to the altering demands by bringing
about a change in the structural and functional properties, commonly referred to as
neuroplasticity, which in turn results in the process of acquiring and learning new skills.
Convergent evidences from both animal and human studies suggests that performing physical
activity has the potential to enhance neuroplasticity of specific brain structures, thereby
improving cognitive functions [69]. Animal studies have also been conducted that have
successfully identified enhancement of synaptogenesis, neurogenesis, and angiogenesis,
along with the concomitant release of neurotrophins [70]. These major neural mechanisms
have been correlated with the mediation of cognitive effects related to physical exercise.
Physical exercises also triggers processes facilitating neuroplasticity, thereby enhancing the
capacity of an individual to respond to newer behavioural adaptation demands [71]. The
association of long-term dance experiences were tested with respect to volume of gray matter
and cognitive performance among women aged more 65-82 years. No significant differences
were found in the four cognitive domains, thereby suggesting that moderate dance failed to
induce any effects on cognitive functioning and volume of gray matter, when a certain level
was reached.
Reductions were observed in improvements of procedural memory that were induced
by exercise in another study [72]. This was associated with a simultaneous increase in its
temporal proximity from acquisition. Thus, the timing of exercise was considered as an
essential factor for consolidation of motor memory. Findings from another study suggested
that impairment in motor performance while performing dual-task walking was mirrored in
the form of neural activation patterns [73]. Regular exercise has the capability of delaying
brain shrinkage, by dramatically increasing brain activity. An increase in the brain’s blood
flow brought about by physical exercise, triggers a series of biochemical changes that

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enhance neuroplasticity and produce newer connections. Furthermore, participation in
aerobic exercise for 15-30 minutes also exerts positive impacts on the brain such as,
improved executive function and memory [74].
Exercise and cognition
Health experts are often found to remark that availability of exercise in the form of
pills would make it the most sought after drug in the pharmaceutical industry. Decades of
research have identified exercise as an essential tool that enhances a range of physical indices
such as, bone density, balance, lipid profile, cardiovascular health, and blood pressure [75]. It
has been well established that BDNF, the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gets released
during aerobic exercise and stimulate the growth of new neurons [76]. Aerobic fitness has
been identified to revert loss of brain tissue due to aging, thereby enhancing the functional
aspects of brain regions that are involved in cognition. More active individuals have the
capability of allocating increased attentional resources towards the environment and also
process information rapidly. New evidences indicate that exercise affects numerous
molecular events, allied with synaptic plasticity [77]. Modulation of molecular systems
related with energy is a pivotal mechanism that governs the influence of exercise on
cognition.
Findings from a study correlated higher fitness with greater bilateral hippocampal
volume, and improved spatial memory performance [78]. Increase in the hippocampal
volume by 2% was also found among participants in exercise treatment group in another
study, thereby indicating the positive effects of exercise on cognition [79]. Evidence also
suggest that volumetric differences in important brain regions have been recognised
responsible for mediating differences in cognitive performance, such as task switching [80].
MRI findings also establish the link between exercise and an upregulation of the cerebral

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blood volume, present in the dentate gyrus, the regions that is responsible for adult
neurogenesis [81]. Thus, it can be well established that exercise creates a major influence on
the molecular substrates in control of cognition.
Research Aim
The primary aim of the research is to investigate the effects of exercise on the
cognitive function and academic performance of adolescent school children.
Research hypothesis
 H1- Exercise will improve the cognitive function and academic performance of
adolescent school children.
 H0- Exercise will fail to create any impact on the cognitive function and academic
performance of adolescent school children.

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