The Reign of Hillary Clinton vs. Donald Trump and its Impact on Mobility of African Americans in the USA

This paper analyzes the impact of Hillary Clinton vs. Donald Trump reign on the mobility of African Americans in the USA. It discusses the hindrances faced by African Americans in moving up the economic ladder and the policies of the two leaders towards them.

RUNNING HEADER: Political science
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Introduction
Generally, mobility is defined as the change or shift that is incurred within a society. The
change or the shift can either from one place to the other or changing attitudes towards
something or someone (Bedford, 2017). If the term social is incorporated with the word
mobility then it means that people(s) occupying a particular class tra1fnsforms to other
position or status. Mobility can either be upward or downward. It may also be
intergenerational. Therefore mobility can be considered from different perspectives (Bertaux
& Thompson,2017). The first approach is a change in occupation whereby there is a consent
change. Second, it is a promotion which is basically found within the same occupational
groups. Thirdly, there is the aspect of advertisement which identifies mobility as the
accumulation of the seniority at a given position and also as a change in occupation
transforming from one generation to the other within the organization.
The reign of Hillary Clinton vs. Donald Trump 2016 has great influence on the mobility of
African American. The two leaders seemed to have policies that targeted to fight for the
African American but no one can trace what changed their stand to these policies. African
America population is partly excluded from the whites in the United State of America. This
means that whites dominate over the African American in USA (Bertaux & Thompson,2017).
The discussion of this paper which includes the organization of literature review, the
literature review, and the conclusion. The major issue to analyse is how the mobility of the
African American population is excluded from the whites at the reign of Hillary Clinton and
Donald Trump.
The two leaders have indicated a vertical type of mobility in the USA. This means that there
is induced the change in the state starting from the occupational, economic and political
status of the African American group. The vertical mobility in African American is in two
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dimensions where there is the aspect of ascending and descending vertical mobility (Bertaux
& Thompson, 2017). The ascending mobility hinders the transformation of blacks from their
lower stratum to higher stratum occupied by the whites. Sometimes the ascending tends to be
both upward and downward depending on the approach taken by different entities.
The topic is of great importance to the entire USA. This means that all the arguments used
will focus to bring change to the USA. The mobility for African American population in the
USA has been hindered in different sections (Choma & Hanoch, 2017). All the leaders have
been promising to induce a change on issues of racial discrimination, issues of unemployment
to African America and other social factors which are vital for humans. Unfortunately, what
leaders do after they have received votes from African America tends to be different. They
forget the rights for blacks and they try as much as possible to uplift the standards of whites
leaving behind the blacks.
The research question of the study.
How the reign of Hillary Clinton vs. the states Donald Trump has affected the mobility of
African American born in either leader’s state to move to the economic ladder in the USA?
Key terms used.
(Mobility, exclusion, outrageous reviewing, antecedents, segments)
Organization for the literature review
The comparison between African Americans born under the reign of either Hillary Clinton or
Donald Trump tries to reveal some aspects which focused to fight for all citizens in USA
(Choma & Hanoch, 2017). The two leaders seem to have similar objectives but sometimes
they differ as compared world leaders. I have decided to analyse the two leaders and then try
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to reveal the hindrance of mobility of African America to move to the economic ladder
(Choma & Hanoch, 2017).
Literature review.
Political science figures prominently different aspect that determines mobility in African
Americans being born in either trumps or Clinton’s state. The whole of this literature review
tries to describe how Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton have survived in hindering mobility
for blacks in America. The analogy is created through diverse attitudes that USA leaders have
towards the Blacks. The focus is on Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton acts as the case study
for the boundary work in the political rhetoric analysed (Choma & Hanoch, 2017). Being
born inn trumps state would be reduction of mobility due to the following issues1.)an
extremely ongoing class of struggle whereby has increased both economic and social
inequality amongst the blacks, there is a downside mobility for the whites who are highly
recognized; 2) there are racism and race resentment after the reign of Barack Obama;3)there
is increased aspect of backlash which is always against the global competition, with the
undocumented African American immigrants who are termed as the scapegoats;4)reassertion
of the roles in the state which has is the bottleneck for the entire state. All these aspects opt
to indicate the boundaries that are found between the whites and other groups such as the
Blacks in America (Immergluck, 2016).
The mobility of Africans Americans born in trumps state to achieve the economic ladder in
America has been influenced through the following ways;
First, Schoenfeld (2018) indicates that there is suppressing civil rights and increased
incarceration in the state. The aspect of incarceration was abolished during the era of Barrack
Obama. Unfortunately, therein of Trump in the USA has reversed the approach came up with
the policies that would lead to the mass incarceration of black people. Policies have been
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reversed both by Hillary and Trump who are fighting for the rights of blacks. Trump argued
that people should not be jailed because they are poor and therefore sentencing reforms that
have harsh treatments to the Blacks should be abolished. The other aspects which affect the
mobility for groups in America are evident on the civil rights departments. Sanchez (2015)
shows that instead of civil rights bodies to protect the rights for minorities they end up
assaulting them which is unfair.
Marable (2015) indicates the failure to address the economic recession of blacks in America.
Generally, the reign of Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton has been faced with the high
unemployment rate. Although the unemployment for African American failed during the
reign of Obama, the two leaders have failed to address it keenly. The issue is that the black
unemployment cases have been twice that of whites. This started for the last 50 years and it is
still being experienced at this time of Donald Trump. It's quite inhuman whereby the
unemployment for blacks is keenly addressed. This is ironical if one tries to consider it
opposite whereby if the unemployment for whites were to be like that of blacks in the USA
no one will be happy at all. The unemployment level being experienced by the blacks today is
as a result of the recession in America (Cooper, 2016). Most of the recessions done by the
leaders in America wholly targeted to reduce economic stimuli for African American
population in the USA. The question the author is asking is how come the whites are
occupying the higher positions in the government and other economic fields but blacks are
there in villages struggling. This is unfair since all the citizens participated in electing leaders
such as Trump and Clinton.Varenne (2018) shows that if all these leaders were to provide
equal job opportunities for both blacks and whites in the USA then the whole state will be
celebrating now.
Also, according to Tatum (2017), there is the issue of taking away money and resources from
the African American population. The author indicates how this aspect has reduced the
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mobility for blacks in America. The research has revealed that there is less progress in
combatting the anti-black discrimination in different economic fields. The wage gap for the
black in the USA is growing since 1978.Instead of leaders working against this approach,
some are gearing the issue whereby you find that African American groups are highly
discriminated in America. Different organizations have been formed so as to check the
progress in the labour market. These organizations are required by the federal government to
give reports on the employees from different companies (Du Bois, 2017). The reports should
entail the number of workers employed, the sex of workers, the race of workers and ethnicity.
None of this organizations give information on the companies who employ the blacks. This is
unfair and leaders have no time to address. Some of this organizations even halted collecting
data from the companies which are believed to have employed the blacks. Trump refused to
pass rule for the overtime pay for the blacks in America. This rule was to return more than
1.5 million black workers in different companies but Trump decided not to sign the rule. This
has affected the economic progress for the African American United States of America. In
addition, Trump decided to promote new policies which targeted to harm the African
American in the United States. This in fact affected the black's mobility in America. Sarich
(2018) argues that the rule was to ensure blacks do not earn more in America whereby those
businesses and restaurants owned by the blacks were to thoroughly check to ensure they do
not deviate from the laws. This was ironical in the sense that it's only the business for blacks
which were inspected leaving behind the whites businesses untouched. Through all these
whites in America have got an advantage for the blacks whereby they are stealing wages for
the African American. This has been by the failure to enforce the hour rule and wage laws for
the state. It has been researched that black workers lose a wage of $2100 per year which is a
large amount. Therefore Trump has tried to terminate the presence of blacks in America by
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all means. Pattillo (2017) concludes by indicating that blacks will have decades of years to
lose under the rule of Trump in the USA.
In addition, Immergluck (2016) has argued on the issue of ending the protection from the
predatory lenders in America. According to the political science, there was a financial crisis
in the USA in 2008 which led to the formation of Consumer Financial Protection Bureau
which was to guarantee for the standards of fairness in America such as the issuing of credit
cards, issuing of car loans and also check for the student loans in America. The body won a
lot of money which had been stolen from the blacks. It investigated a lot of bank accounts
and found that some white people had stolen a lot from the African Americans. This was
identified as one of the ruthless activity in the USA which seemed to be uncouth and
inhuman. Stealing wealth from the blacks clearly indicated lack of equity and thus hindering
the mobility for blacks hence increasing the economic turmoil to the African American
population (Immergluck, 2016). Unfortunately, Trump decided to cut the powers of this
organization whereby the selected one of the director who was to intervene the powers of
Consumer Financial Protection Bureau in America (CFPB). Under the influence of leaders in
America, the CFPB has reduced its powers to fight the blacks in American. Cases and rules
have been halted under the influence of Trump and therefore blacks are now being charged
huge interest rates on the loans and other services. This has reduced the upward mobility for
the black’s thus decreased economic system. Also, Martin & Keown, (2017) shows that
blacks are now excluded from accessing the fair opportunities in America in the sense that no
equity and equality at all economic sectors in America, especially for the black people. The
agency also has failed in preparing the prepaid cards for the blacks, failed to pass rules that
can weaken the abusive interest rates and the fee which is found for errors incurred by the
African American in different financial transactions. Also, Trump signed for the rule that
those blacks were have been illegally discriminated against the financial services cannot sue
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the companies responsible (Martin & Keown, 2017).They have been prohibited from joining
together to hold court cases so as to fight for their rights in America. In fact, if blacks try to
sue the company the whole benefit goes to the company itself. Actually, the African
American populations are losing protector and someone to fight for their rights in the federal
government of the United States of America.
Another issue reducing the mobility for the African American population in the USA is well
described by Chetty, Hendren, Kline, & Saez (2014). They discuss on the helping the
predatory for the profit learning institutions that rip off the African American students in
USA. The reign of Obama and other leaders in the USA was characterized by the ability to
rein in the learning centres that used load up students with debt without any single method to
provide a chance for value in the labour market in the USA. Obama worked by advocating
for the forgiveness of large debts incurred by both the African American students and white
students. The time of Trump is quite different and he is trying to reverse what Obama used to
do in America. Some department of education in the USA has worked to reduce the powers
of consumer protection agencies such as the Borrower Defence which used to give loans to
the students in the USA. The agency also worked to assist the learners to seek for the
forgiveness especially when they were defrauded in the predator learning centres (Chetty et
al, 2014). Leaders after the end of Obama's rule they tried to end the allocation of funds to
this learning centres. The aim was to reduce the foreign students and African American
students in universities who were being supported by the Borrower Defence agency in the
USA. This was discrimination based on colour whereby whites enjoyed the loans and funds
which they used to advance in their academic fields. Trump in his administration proposed to
cut off the fund assistance to the students especially the African American learners. Trump
said no fund lending to the African American students in the USA. Also, all the financial
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bodies in the USA were authorized to prey away those African American learners who are in
need of the loans (Chetty et al, 2014).
Also, Burd-Sharps & Rasch (2015) have discussed on the housing crisis and segregation to
the African American in the USA. Generally, the African American population in the USA
forms 12 % of the entire population in the country. Even though this number is smaller,
African American population tend to have the large percentage of homeless groups in the
USA. Most of the whites don't even spend more than 40% of their income for the housing
facilities but to the side of blacks, the incidence is the opposite. African American population
are spending more than 60% of their total income on the housing services in America. They
show that America has more than 8 million rental houses yet African Americans are homeless
in this state. Despite this inhuman analogy, leaders are working to make life difficult for the
African American society and other low earning families in the USA. The rents for poor
individuals are being tripled in USA (Desmond & Shollenberger, 2015). Housing
departments and agencies have even reduced their powers to fight for the rights and freedom
of African American people who are minorities in the state. Racial discriminations for houses
and housing segregation has traded in America with the blacks being the most targeted group
in the USA thus affecting their mobility. Due to this homelessness in the USA has increased
especially for the African Americans being born thus reduced mobility and high challenge to
climb the economic ladder in the state.
Methodological literature review
Disparities in income
Differences in wealth believe riches in the United States is unequally partitioned and divided
among white and African American family units reducing their mobility under trumps reign.
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All the more explicitly, African Americans for the most part are less rich than whites. In fact,
African Americans have just 10% of the riches in the U.S. in contrast with white Americans
(Arbour, 2018). Regardless of whether they are exceedingly instructed, African Americans
keep on being less well off than whites, which appears to affirm that race still shapes
opportunity in the United States. Consequently, African Americans born in Clintons reign are
bound to be monetarily temperamental or less economically unstable and less likely to
upward monetary versatility and mobility. Additionally, this leads to less income levels and
lower intergenerational financial portability. She would also ensure reserve funds for them
equally as their white counterparts.
Discrimination in the housing market
As stated by the article Arbour (2018). Black Americans not exclusively are victimized in the
work showcase but also in the lodging market and labor market, keeping numerous African
Americans from positive private chances. As uncovered by different researchers African
Americans have an essentially lower opportunity to claim a home as white Americans.
Concurring this fact it indicates that about or a good number of study demonstrated that
African Americans has high uncalled for treatment when searching for a house. For instance,
they are given less data about houses and have less opportunities to see those (Brown, 2016).
Moreover, African Americans endured much more biased treatment when searching for a
house in a prevalently white neighborhood. Furthermore, it’s announced that numerous
African Americans live in dominatingly dark urban neighborhoods lowering their mobility.
Government officials are bound to lessen spending and administrations in those areas instead
of transcendently white neighborhoods. Strikingly, racial minorities are not as dynamic in
governmental issues as white Americans and in this manner are less likely to restrict those
mobility measures (Dalamu, 2018).However Clinton would create networks are that increase
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mobility of Africans being born in her state. Working class African Americans have higher
odds of living in such neighborhoods than their white partners. Clinton would raise this thus
ensuring African mobilization to live in other neighborhoods
Discrimination in the labor market
Evidently various research audit demonstrated that it takes African American men any
longer to locate a steady occupation with great wages and retirement benefits than their white
partners (Dufour, 2017).Being born in trumps state would mean how mobility of blacks in
search for job opportunities they additionally have more prominent trouble to secure job
experiences. Dark men with a secondary school certificate have a 70% higher opportunity to
be jobless. Besides, study indicates that racial minorities are bound to have a flimsy
employment or a vocation with no development openings, work satisfaction and with no
career growth (Frey, 2018). Additionally, African Americans procure around 15 pennies
lower that white Americans counterparts who hold comparable qualifications.
Discrimination in the consumer market
According to Dufour, 2017). It is not necessarily that various researchers mainly take into
account the existing racial segregation in consumer markets. The African American would
have been highly mobilized from this this if at all it was Hillary Clintons reign and not
Donald trump. In any case, "a great part of the exact work on segregation in purchaser
markets has concentrated explicitly looking into it of vehicle buys, which, besides lodging,
speak to a standout amongst the most noteworthy types of individual utilization
consumptions" (Isenberg,2017). At the end of the day, discrimination of African American in
buyer markets gives a lot of data on how they are treated by different white Americans in
their regular day to day existences. It uncovers how society treats racial minorities. Proposed
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that oppressive treatment in purchaser markets endures negative influences on minority.
African Americans encounter discrimination in eateries, retail establishments and other open
facilities due to their low support to Donald trump (Lamont, Park, & Ayala‐Hurtado, 2017).
They were considered to support Hillary Clinton during the elections.
Methodological literature review
Starving Poor Families
Similarly as with different zones of open help programs, the Trump organization has
additionally started the procedure to empower states to add work necessities to the
nourishment stamp program in regions that have had reliably high unemployment. Proposals
to rebuild SNAP would excessively affect those with dysfunctional behavior, and adolescents
maturing out of encourage youth programs (Neil, 2017). The Organization has likewise
considered recommendations to tranquilize test SNAP beneficiaries, including an expensive
layer of administration to the SNAP program and possibly cooling the capacity of individuals
to accomplish nourishment security. These strategies and policies enacted will probably build
hunger increase in African America affecting their mobility levels as state by Manza, &
Crowley (2017).
Worsening the health of the black Americans
Natural pollution lopsidedly hurts African Americans, who are as of now more presented to
contamination because of a long history of racially biased approaches. For instance, dark
Americans are 1.54 occasions bound to be presented to contamination and pollution particles
related with heart and lung infection than the general populace of whites. (Reeves,
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2018). Approximately more than 1 million African Americans lives are based inside a half
mile of existing gaseous petrol equipment’s and experience lifted dangers of diseases such as
cancer.. The reign has slowed down, debilitated, or withdrew controls over different polluting
areas including the power facility, synthetics producing, the oil and gas division, and
transportation. These are aimed at reducing the productiveness of the black Americans so that
they can get social mobility and not be able to move along the economic ladder. Thus being
born in trumps state means non mobility of Africans due to pollution and health effects as
they become weak
Homeland insecurity for black immigrants and back Muslims
Xenophobia and Islam phobia are additionally African American issues that reduce their
mobility to move up the economic ladder. 10% of the dark populace in America is foreign
conceived According to Sanders (2017, an extra 6 percent relate to other nations, for
example, Haiti and Nigeria. As stated by Neil, (2017) this is despite the fact that they were
not conceived there. One-fifth of American Muslims are usually African American. The
xenophobia and Islam phobia communicated by the Trump organization straightforwardly
affects the dark populace.
The Trump security administration undermines the security of black individuals thus
lowering their mobility from one place to another. As opposed to proceeding with the
Obama’s enacted policy of deporting those individuals sentenced for crimes with violence,
Trump's administration is extraditing people who have been profitable individuals from
American culture for quite some years. These policies are also separating families since some
are authorized while others are not.
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(Sanders, 2017) Being born in trumps state reduces the mobility of labor force of African
Americans. This is because he ended a program made to bear the cost of visas to Haitian
laborers. This happened only days after Trump purportedly alluded to Haiti and African
nations as "s***hole nations.
Albeit racial oppressor and white supremacist terrorism poses a more noteworthy danger to
the nation—and explicitly to dark Americans—than Islamist terrorism, the Trump
organization to a great extent overlooks the previous and participates in overstatement and
mutilation on the same. Trump organization careless on policing, forestalling, and
denouncing racial oppressor fear based oppression. His arrangements really empower racial
oppressor psychological warfare. Current study regarding hostility to Muslim indicates that
there is increase in hate speech against Muslim discourse since the election of Donald Trump.
This reduces mobility of black people in terms of religion. However being born in Clintons
state would mean freedom of religion and respect to human rights.
Here we see a reasonable case of social avoidance at work. ,. It purposely conveys bigot
thoughts to legitimize and naturalize … financial weakness, law based exclusion, and
considerably further social hardship—so as to distract people’s attention in focusing on who
is in charge of inequality. According to Sanders (2017). While the people assaulting Muslims
are conjuring up nightmarish dreams about Muslims with impelling from the Trump reign,
they are not focusing on how they are really being hurt by his policies of favoring extremely
rich people.
Unlike like Hillary Clinton’s objectives, Donald trump has ruined the African Americans
dreams for those people born in trump states thus affecting their mobility.
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As per the 'American Dream', everyone, paying little mind to race, salary or societal position,
has the chance to be fruitful in the United States. Being born in Hillary Clinton’s state would
mean high dreams mobility and flexibility unlike trumps. The article Tanner (2016) argues
that it doesn't make a difference where you began from, as long as you have a valid dream,
you can make it in the United States. Everyone can better themselves monetarily and increase
their living standards than that of their folks. Besides, the American political framework
demands that all men are created similarly. Conversely, this 'Fantasy' was never valid and is
currently even less practical than before. In the modern era, income to a great extent decides
opportunity and in this manner just the well-off have a genuine shot of succeeding. "The
'American Dream' - the capacity to climb the financial stepping stool and accomplish more
than one's folks did-is less and less a reality with consistently that passes by”. Also, chances
to end up fruitful are not needy any longer on mobility and reliability alone, but rather rotate
around riches. In present day U.S., clothes to newfound wealth stories are uncommon
(Tanner, 2016).
Besides, they felt disregarded by the foundation who just focused on center and high society
Americans.
Trump racisms views on African Americans
Being born in trumps states shows effect of black’s mobility as seen by trump when he
expressed that 59% of African American youth was jobless. He condemned the 'Dark Lives
Matter' development openly in his talks and called African Americans lethargic, unreasonable
and unpatriotic. Every one of these announcements influenced it to appear that he considered
them as unequal to white Americans (Rabie, 2018)
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Being born in Clintons states will diversify African American mobility on their personal and
economic dreams. This is because she would take forward the manifestos of the former
president barrack Obama since he supported her fully. Hillary Clinton was not a racist and
viewed all races in the American land.
Trumps immigration policy
American immigration strategy and policies has for quite some time been brutal, and molded
by nativist feelings of dread. Donald Trump's way to deal with policing undocumented
migration is less particular from Barack Obama's than a considerable lot of the last's admirers
might want to accept.
In any case, the current reign immigration agenda is uniquely not quite the same as those of
its antecedents. Supremacist brutality isn't only a component of Trump’s immigration policy,
yet its first standard: The White House's superseding objective is to deliver dread and
enduring on America's nonwhite noncitizens, as a methods for fighting "the endless
importation of Third World outsiders with no convention of, taste for, or involvement in
freedom" Thu being born in trump states would affect the mobility of imports goods for
African Americans
Corruption
The American government keeps running on legal bribes. It not crystal clear whether
Congress would have the assets to work if organizations all of a sudden quit paying
multitudes of lobbyists to supply legislators with authoritative dialect.
(Taylor, 2016) Trump and his organization have transparently compromised to rebuff
organizations and tycoons who finance media condemning of his administration — while
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they've done gigantic administrative favors for a neighborhood news telecaster that retails
their purposeful publicity. Furthermore, obviously, the president and his family have
attempted to change over his open power into individual gain in bunch, prominent ways. The
corruption activities leads to discrimination and unfair distribution of resources to the African
American thus would undermine the mobility of black’s natural and financial resources. This
means that they cannot acquire any job or secure employment on legal means without having
to bribe the employers, this will reduce their ability have economic progress.
Conclusion
The Trump Administration Harms African Americans
Typically we can conclude that being born in Trumps states hurts African Americans and
reduces their capital, freedom, labor and social mobility. They are aimed at lowering their
standards of living, lower their social class and minimize their ability to rise on world
economic ladder. As stated by the article Taylor, (2016), In some cases the damage is a result
of detachment to the predicament of dark individuals, now and then on the grounds that the
approaches are intended to hurt the American common laborers and to help Wall Street, and
once in a while in light of the fact that they appear to be planned explicitly to hurt African
Americans The African Americans have anchored less employments under trumps period.
There have been upticks in assembling and development employments under Trump — two
enterprises in which dark Americans will in general have less of the occupations than their bit
of the populace. Be that as it may, huge numbers of those activity gains have been in the
South, where dark Americans make up a bigger segment of the populace than in the Midwest
or Northwest (Vancoillie, 2018).
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African Americans would however become flexible in Clintons state and move freely. Trump
has pushed, essentially tax reductions to extensive enterprises, its indistinct why that would
be any preferable for dark Americans over white ones.
However Hillary Clinton would take forward the manifestos of the former president barrack
Obama since he supported her fully ensuring African American mobility. Hillary Clinton was
not a racist and viewed all races in the American land (Williams, 2016). This means that the
African American would have benefited a lot from Hillary Clinton’s administration. She did
not have such racism thoughts to lock out blacks from Americans economic progress. She is
not discriminative unlike Trump. African Americans would have instead had fair income
distribution, fair employment and fair social amenities like health, schools, housing and
infrastructure.
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RUNNING HEADER: Political science
Rubin, L. G. (2018). Demagogy and the Decline of Middle-Class Republicanism: Aristotle on
the Trump Phenomenon. In Trump and Political Philosophy (pp. 51-73). Palgrave
Macmillan, Cham.
Sanchez, L. (2015). When it comes to free trade policy, human rights should be a game
changer. Harv. J. on Legis., 52, 343.
Sanders, E. (2017, December). The Meaning, Causes, and Possible Results of the 2016
Presidential Election. In The Forum (Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 711-740). De Gruyter.
Sarich, V. (2018). Race: The reality of human differences. Routledge.
Schoenfeld, H. (2018). Building the Prison State: Race and the Politics of Mass
Incarceration. University of Chicago Press.
Tanner, M. (2016). Five myths about economic inequality in America.
Tatum, B. D. (2017). Why are all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria?: And other
conversations about race. Basic Books.
Taylor, P. (2016). The next America: Boomers, millennials, and the looming generational
showdown. Hachette UK.
Vancoillie, L. (2018). How did racial and socio-economic inequality in the United States
contribute to Donald Trump’s election? (Doctoral dissertation, Ghent University).
Varenne, H. (2018). Successful failure: The school America builds. Routledge.
Williams, L. (2016). Servants of the people: The 1960s legacy of African American
leadership. Springer.
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