Anatomy and Physiology Assignment

This assignment delves into various aspects of anatomy and physiology. It includes questions about the reproductive system, skeletal muscle function, photodynamic therapy for skin cancers, thermoregulation during exercise, and connective tissues in the integumentary system. The assignment also explores osteoporosis and its contraindications in manual therapies, as well as signs and symptoms of fibromyalgia.

Running Head: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1
Anatomy and Physiology 1
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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1
Question 1
 Reproduction
 Growth and development
 Responding to stimuli
 Breathing
 Excretion
 Movement
Question 2
Active transport refers to ion and/or molecule movement through a cell membrane to
a higher concentrated area with the assistance of enzymes and this requires energy.
Passive transport involves the movement of ions and/or molecules from a region of low
concentration to a region of high concentration without the use of energy.
Question 3
Osmosis refers to the movement of solvent molecules from a less concentrated
solution through a semipermeable membrane into a more concentrated solution leading to
equal concentrations on both sides of the membrane. The difference between the initial
concentrations of the solutions on both sides creates osmotic pressure which leads to the
movement of water molecules from the less concentrated side through a membrane to the
more concentrated side. Hydrostatic pressure refers to the tendency of water molecules to
remain where they are without moving out of a solution. An increase in osmotic pressure
overcomes hydrostatic pressure allowing water molecules to move from a solution to a more
concentrated one.
Cells, Tissues and Organs
Question 1

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1
The plasma membrane consists of a phospholipids, proteins and cholesterol and proteins
fluid. It also has glycolipids glycoproteins extending from its outward-facing surface. The
plasma membrane is referred to as a mosaic model because it consists of a phospholipid
which has different protein molecules floating within it. Described to be partly fluid the
plasma membrane has some of its parts moving around freely when unattached to other cell
parts.
Question 2
Table 1: Comparison between simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion
SIMPLE DIFFUSION FACILITATED
DIFFUSION
Properties of
molecule
transported
Small & nonpolar molecules Polar & larger ions
Active / passive
transport?
Passive Active
Plasma membrane
proteins required
Channel proteins Both carrier & channel
proteins
Movement of the
molecules across the
membrane
Molecules usually move
down a concentration gradient
molecules usually move up a
concentration gradient
Question 3
Table 2: Cell Junctions: structure and functions
Desmosomes
Structure Cell adhesion proteins & linking proteins
Function Creates cell-to-cell adhesion
Found in Found in the simple and/or stratified squamous epithelium
Gap Junctions
Structure Are intercellular channels consisting of head-to-head
docked hexameric assemblies of channel proteins referred
to as connexions
Function Allow ion, second messengers, and/or small metabolite
exchange between different adjacent cells
Found in At intercellular joints in solid tissues
Question 4
Table 3: Structure and function of different connective tissues

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1
Areolar
Structure A loose connective tissue consisting of collagen, elastic tissue and
reticular fibre meshwork, with numerous connective tissue cells in
between it.
Function Holds organs in place. Attaching epithelial tissue to underlying
tissues. Water and salt reservoir for surrounding tissues.
Dense regular connective tissue
Structure Densely packed collagen fibres arranged in parallel.
Function Form ligaments to connect bone to born and/or cartilage to muscle
Elastic connective tissue
Structure Made of elastin bundles in the extracellular matrix of connective
tissues.
Function Provides resistance to forces of stretch.
Hyaline cartilage
Structure Consists of type II collagen and chondroitin sulphate found within
the elastic cartilage.
Function Provides smooth surfaces to enable tissues to move and/or slide over
each other easily. These include joints. Hyaline cartilage also
provides both flexibility and support.
Fibrocartilage
Structure A tough cartilage consisting of chondrocytes that are scattered
among dense collagen bundles within the matrix that are clearly
visible. Has no perichondrium.
Function It has cartilaginous ground substance and/or dense bundles of
collagen which allow it to resist deformation of intervertebral disks
and the symphysis pubis when under great stress. The fibrocartilage
attaches bone to bone and provides restricted mobility.
Question 5
The 3 muscle tissue types include cardiac, skeletal and smooth muscles. The cardiac
muscle cells located in heart are striated and are usually under involuntary control.
The smooth muscles are within hollow visceral organ walls except in the heart. They are
spindle-shaped and also under the body’ involuntary control. Skeletal muscles are found
attached to the body skeleton. Skeletal muscle fibres are striated but under voluntary
control.
Question 6
Tissue repair occurs in phases. The inflammatory phase as the first one occurs

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1
between day 1 and 7 after injury where acute inflammation and bleeding initially occurs
resulting into pain, swelling, heat and redness. Inflammation breaks down damaged cells
and digests them in preparation for the next phase. The second phase is referred to as
fibroblastic repair phase which begins from Day 4 till 6 weeks. The damaged tissue starts
being repaired through a disorganized laying down of collagen fibres forming a scar tissue
that is weaker and/or less flexible as compared to the surrounding normal tissues. The
remodelling phase is the last phase that starts from 2 to 3 weeks after injury. The quality
strength and organization of the tissue improve as the cellular collagen fibre organization
occurs with increased strength of the bonds between them. Addition of stress to the tissues
at this time helps realign those fibres along proper stress line making the tissues to be in
position to accommodate more loads placed on them.
Part C: Homeostasis and Disease Progression
Question 1
A molecule is usually formed by the joining of two or more atoms chemically. On the other
hand, compound refers to a molecule consisting of at least two elements that are different.
H2O above is both a molecule and a compound.
Question 2
Chemical reaction refers to process where a substance or more as reactants; are converted
to one and/or more substances different from the reactants referred to as product(s).
From the above equation, H2O and CO2 are reactants which react to form H2CO3 (product).
Question 3
H2CO3 is an acid while the HCO3- is a weak base. This is because the released hydrogen ion
remains attached to attached thus not free in solution meaning there is no pH change.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1
Question 4
An increase in carbon dioxide increases the formation of carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is
however always in equilibrium with bicarbonate in solution.
Significant carbonic acid and/or bicarbonate amounts lead to the formation of a buffer
written as shown.
H2CO3 + H2O H3O+ + HCO3-
The blood buffer consisting of high base concentration helps in neutralizing the carbonic
acid. Where more carbon dioxide is present, carbonic acid concentration lowers in the
blood. The instability of carbonic acid in aqueous solutions makes some of it to decompose
forming water and carbon dioxide. The respiratory system is responsible for removing the
carbon dioxide.
Question 5
Loss of normal control of cell division results in to abnormal cell division. In this case,
basal cells begin to divide faster than required to replenish those cells being shed. Each of
the newly formed cells also has the capacity to get divided thus resulting in an increase in
the dividing cell numbers. This is simply referred to as cancer.
Question 6
 Smoking(Nicotine)
 Radiation
 Carcinogenic chemicals
 Exposure to viruses and/or hormones
Question 7
Table 1 – Adaptive changes in cells
Term Definition
Atrophy The wasting away of a body tissue/organ resulting from cell
degeneration.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1
Hypertrophy Refers to tissue/organ enlargement due to cellular enlargement.
An aplasia The lack of neoplastic cell differentiation.
Dysplasia The presence of abnormal cell types in a given tissue; which normally
indicates the possibility of cancer development.
Metaplasia The reversible change of a differentiated cell into another type of cell.
Apoptosis The normal cellular death which occurs through normal and/or
controlled growth and development.
Necrosis Death of majority and/or all cells of a given tissue/organ resulting from
injury, diseases and a lack of blood supply.
Question 9: Signs & Symptoms of Hyperthermia
 Coma
 Fainting
 Confusion,
 Fever
 Muscle cramps
 Nausea
 Faster hear rate.
Part D: Integumentary System
Question 1
The integumentary system comprises of the glands, hair, nails, skin, and nerves. It major
function includes acting as a barrier and protection of the body from any factors in the
external environment. It also retains body fluids, protects against diseases, eliminates
wastes, and regulates the body temperature.
Question 2
Signs and Symptoms Of Skin Cancers, including Melanoma
 Non-healing sores

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1
 Pigment spread from spot border to the surrounding skin
 Redness occurs beyond the border of the sore spot
 Itchiness, tenderness and pain
 Changes in mole surface
Question 3
Cellular changes in melanoma are caused by ultraviolet (UV) rays which damage skin
cells’ DNA. The damage disrupts normal cell division leading to abnormal cell division
where basal cells of the skin develop faster than cells that need normal shed-off. These
cells can even divide further forming tumours as melanoma. The loss of normal control
mechanism caused by triggers normally turns on oncogenes while also turning off the
skin’s tumour suppressor genes. This leads to melanoma where there is abnormal cell
division as stated above.
Question 4:
 Ultraviolet rays from the sun and from tanning beds
 Radiation
 Chemical solvents
Question 5
Causes of Burns
 Fire
 Electrical current
 Hot liquid/steam
 Chemicals
Classification of Burns
1. First degree burns-only epidermis burnt
2. Second degree burns-epidermis and part of dermis

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1
3. Destroys epidermis, dermis and even the subcutaneous layer of skin.
Part E: Musculo-skeletal System
Question 1
Function of the skeletal system
 Support-Leg, pelvic and vertebral column bones hold the body up.
 Protection-The bones enclose and also protect lungs, brain, heart, bone marrow and
the spinal cord.
 Movement-Skeletal muscles facilitate movement of legs and arms. Also enable
ventilation through facilitation rib movement.
Question 2
The bones forming the skeleton function as reservoirs for calcium, phosphorus and
essential minerals. Muscles contain troponin protein which helps to hold tropomyosin on
the actin filament in place. Muscle contraction needs troponin and the tropomyosin to be
moved in order to reveal myosin-binding sites. At this point, calcium mobilized from bones
triggers the movement of the two proteins. The binding of calcium to troponin protein
leads to a change in the shape of troponin molecule effecting contraction.
Question 3
Myofibril consists of thick and/or thin myofilaments which give the striped appearance of
the muscle. The thick filaments consist of myosin while the thin filaments are mainly actin
including tropomyosin and troponin.The sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions into
the muscle so as to bind to troponin, and this causes tropomyosin shifting actin from the
filament face producing contraction.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1
Question 4
Table 4: Comparison of different types of muscle contractions
Description Example
ISOMETRIC The muscle activates with both
force and tension but no movement
occurs at a given joint. The joint
remains static. No muscle fibre
lengthening and/or contraction thus
limb movement.
When doing wall-sit
exercise where one seems
to sit on an invisible chair.
ISOTONIC The muscle shortens thus
overcoming resistance making at
least one joint to move leading to
body movement.
When lifting weight.
Question 5
Aging leads to osteoporosis where the bone density decreases as a result of decrease in the
bone extracellular matrix. Contraindicated manual therapies among people with
osteoporosis include twisting movements, exercise involving abrupt/explosive loading, and
those with high-impact loading.
Question 6: Signs and Symptoms of Fibromyalgia.
 Pain
 Lack of sleep
 Morning stiffness
 Problems with cognitive memory
 Headaches

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1
 Restless legs
 Painful menstrual periods