Anatomy and Physiology (PDF)

Anatomy and Physiology 1
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
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Anatomy and Physiology 2
Anatomy and Physiology
Explain the role of hydrostatic and osmotic pressure in the formation and
reabsorption of tissue fluid.
Hydrostatic pressure can be defined as pressure of a fluid that is in an enclosed space.
This is the pressure that is primarily responsible for the movement of fluids between the
capillaries and the tissues (Collins and Varmus, 2015). In other words, it is the pressure that
is mainly responsible for movement of fluid from the capillaries to the tissues. It follows that
the pressure plays a key role in the formation of tissue fluid. One kind of this pressure is the
blood hydrostatic pressure. It refers to the force that is exerted by blood which is enclosed by
the capillaries or the chambers of the heart (VanPutte, Regan and Russo 2017). There is also
capillary hydrostatic pressure. This refers to the pressure applied by blood to the walls of
capillaries. As seen above this pressure is responsible for the formation of tissue fluid through
movement of fluids from the capillaries to the tissues.
Osmotic pressure is antagonistic to the hydrostatic pressure. It is responsible for the
movement of fluids from the tissue fluid back to the capillaries (Lavie et al. 2015). This
process is referred to as reabsorption. It is also known as oncotic pressure. While the
hydrostatic pressure leads to movement of fluids from the capillaries, osmotic pressure causes
the fluids to move back to the capillaries. Osmotic pressure is dependent on the osmotic
concentration gradient. This refers to the difference between the concentration of water and
solutes. Water moves from a region where it is in high concentration to a region where it is in
low concentration across a semi-permeable membrane.

Anatomy and Physiology 3
Explain oedema and some possible causes.
Oedema refers to a condition where there is accumulation of body fluid in excessive
quantities. The fluid accumulation occurs in body tissues. Oedema may occur in almost any
part of the body. Although this is the case oedema may occur more in certain parts of the
body. These include the legs, hand, feet, arms and ankles. The condition is characterized by
swelling which occurs directly beneath the skin and especially in the legs. It may also lead to
stretching of the skin to the pressure applied by the swelling. Oedema may also cause the
abdomen to be swollen (Foster and Coetzee 2015). One common way of determining oedema
is through using the thumb to press the area suspected. In cases of oedema, a pit is usually
left. The pit disappears slowly. The condition may be given different names depending on the
area of the body that it affects. For instance, there is pulmonary oedema, peripheral oedema
etc.
There are several possible causes of oedema. The common mode of causation is
through leaking of fluid from the blood vessels in to the neighbouring environment. Mild
cases may be caused by such factors as: sitting in a place for a long period, consuming a diet
that is high in sodium and pregnancy (Smith 2014). Oedema could also present as a side
effect of certain medications. For instance, drugs used to treat hypertension, oestrogens,
thiazolidinediones (drugs for diabetes management) and steroid drugs. In some instances,
oedema may be a symptom of another serious condition (Waugh and Grant 2014). Such
conditions include congestive heart failure and kidney diseases.
Explain the structure of the respiratory system.
This is the system that carries out the proves of breathing/ gaseous exchange. The
process is fundamental to life and any illness affecting the system poses a significant threat to