Biology of Disease: Key Features, Aetiology, and Treatment

This document discusses the key features, aetiology, and treatment of various diseases such as anorexia nervosa, atherosclerosis, type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, cataracts, Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, cirrhosis, and typhoid fever. It also explores the concept of cancer-associated antigens and immunotherapy. The document provides insights into the causes, risk factors, and treatment options for these diseases.

Running head: BIOLOGY OF DISEASE
Biology of Disease
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note

1BIOLOGY OF DISEASE
1. The key features of the anorexia nervosa are as below-
 Thin appearance
 Fatigue
 Dizziness
 Insomnia
 Extreme weight loss
 Abnormality in the blood count of the patient
 Low blood pressure and irregular heart rhythm
 Dry and yellowish skin (Lock and Le Grange 2015).
2. Foam cells refers to a type of macrophages that accumulate in the fatty deposits on the
vessel walls. In the blood vessel walls they become laden with the help of lipids by
ingesting the low-density lipoproteins and as a result the blood vessels looks like foams
(Childs et al. 2016).
3. Helicobacter pylori is a gram-negative bacteria and it is responsible for the ulcer
formation in the gastrointestinal track of the human body. H. pylori mainly affect the
duodenal and stomach lining of the epithelial cells. The ammonia produced to regulate
the acidic environment of the GI tract is harmful to the epithelial cell layers. The
protease, vacuolating cytotoxin A (VacA) specifically damages the epithelial cell layer of
the stomach and disrupts the tight junctions. The disruption of the cell layer allows the
acid of the stomach to interact directly with the wall of the stomach and that causes
inflammation of that region. In addition, the H. pylori enhances the amount of the COX2
and enhances the inflammation. The inflammatory responses also promotes the release of

2BIOLOGY OF DISEASE
more acid from the parietal cells. This enhanced amount of acid makes more damage to
the duodenal cell wall (Eusebi, Zagari and Bazzoli 2014).
4. Food aversion to the condition when a specific type of food causes uncomfortable
condition to the pregnant woman and these foods gives them a nauseous filling to them
and they start to hate the taste of the food. On the other hand, allergy is a specific immune
response against a particular foreign substance that is called an allergen (Turnbull,
Adams and Gorard 2015). A food aversion is not related to any immune response, on the
other hand allergy is totally related to that.
5. There are a few particular dietary factors that can promote the cancer among the human
body. Mostly it is observed that consumption of meat, eggs and dietary products are
associated with the progression of cancer among the human. In addition to this, high fat
diet also can enhance the risk of the cancer. The consumption of the high amount of
protein like processed and red meat can increase the chance of colorectal cancer. It is
seen that, in the charred meat, certain chemical called PAHs and HCAs are present. High
level of exposure of those chemicals promote the cancer in humans. The study of Chang
et el. (2014), also showed that high fat diet promotes the prostate cancer. Their findings
were also supported by the study of Cohen (2018). In addition, the red meat-derived
glycan promotes the cancer progression (Samraj et al. 2015).
6. Saturated fatty acids are one of the most leading cause of the cardiovascular disease in
human. A saturated fatty acids (SFA) is directly associated with the onset of the
cardiovascular disease in human. However, it is seen in various studies that replacement
of SAF with cis-polyunsaturated fatty acids has reduced the risk of cardiovascular disease
(Nettleton et al. 2017). In addition, the dietary guidelines 2015-2020 of America

3BIOLOGY OF DISEASE
recommends to replace the SAF with mono and poly unsaturated fatty acids (Briggs,
Petersen and Kris-Etherton 2017).
Aetiology of Disease
1. The name of the 2 age related non-neurological disorders are osteoporosis and cataracts.
Osteoporosis Cataract
Aetiology- Osteoporosis is the most common
form of arthritis and it is more prevalent in
woman. Obesity, previous joint injury, lack of
calcium consumption can be counted as a cause
of the disease.
Risk factors- After the age of 30 risk is high for
the disease. In addition, women after the age of
50 have the more chances of getting affected by
this disease.
Treatment- Bisphosphonate, selective
oestrogen receptor modulators, parathyroid
hormone can be used as medication of this
disease ( Cosman et al. 2014).
Aetiology- Cataract may happen due to
smoking, diabetes, ultraviolet ray exposures.
Risk factors- older age, heavy alcohol
consumption, family history of cataracts,
exposure to the radiation from x-rays, high
blood pressure.
Treatment- surgery is the most common
recommended treatment for cataract ( Patil et al.
2014).
2. The name of 2 age related neurological disorders are Parkinson’s disease and
Alzheimer’s disease.
Parkinson’s Disease Alzheimer’s Disease
Aetiology- The depletion of the dopamine
producing cells in the substantia nigra is mainly
responsible for the Parkinson’s disease.
However, previous family history of the disease
also promotes the onset of disease.
Risk factors- Low level of dopamine and
norepinephrine levels in the body. In addition,
family history of the disease also enhances the
risks of the disease. Autoimmune Rheumatoid
Arthritis (ARD) may be also associated with the
disease.
Treatment- The disease is not completely
curable but it can be managed by using
Aetiology- age, head injury, head to head
connection heredity of the disease can be
counted as a cause of the disease
Risk factors- Although age is not direct cause
of the disease, with growing age the chances of
disease are enhanced and previous family
history can be a serious risk factor for the
disease.
Treatment- Memantine, galantamine, donepezil
can be used to treat Alzheimer’s disease
(Alzheimer’s 2015).

4BIOLOGY OF DISEASE
balancing the acetylcholine and dopamine.
Thalactomy and palliodotomy can be used as a
part of the treatment (Pringsheim, et al. 2014).
3. Atherosclerosis refers to the narrowing and hardening of the blood vessels in which
arteries become narrow due to the plaque around the wall of the artery. The atheroma
formation is composed of several steps. The primary step is the endothelial injury due to
the hypertension, smoking, hyperglycemia or by other chemical factors. As a result, the
disrupted endothelial cells causes adhesion of platelet and monocyte, increased
permeability and that ultimately results in lipid accumulation. After that foam cells are
formed. The influx of smooth muscle cells and macrophages causes ingestion of lipids
and inflammation occurs. In this step young atheroma is formed and in next step old
atheroma is formed by collagen deposition, smooth muscle proliferation.
7. Atheroma may cause heart attack, blockage of the blood vessels, stroke, proliferation of
smooth muscle cells, excessive fibrosis of the intima (Childs et al. 2016).
4. In type 2 diabetes, the insulin is not adequate or the body of the patient can not recognize
the insulin as a result, the amount of glucose can be reduced in the patient’s body
(Rosenstock et al. 2014). In the treatment of diabetes, metformin, meglitinides, and
sulfonylureas can be used.
5. Cirrhosis refers to the scarring of the liver tissues due liver disease or due to excessive
alcohol consumption. In addition, chronic viral hepatitis, poorly formed bile duct,
wilson’s disease, infection such as brucellosis or syphilis can cause cirrhosis. By using
blood tests such as bilirubin test, biopsy of the liver tissue sample, magnetic resonance
elastography (MRE), cirrhosis can be detected (Mayo Clinic 2019).

5BIOLOGY OF DISEASE
6. Immunotherapy works mainly by initiating the immune response against a particular
foreign particle and in recent time, this technique is greatly used in the treatment of
cancer. In recent times, cancer vaccines, oncogenic virus vaccine can be used as a
treatment method of the cancer. In addition, the CAR-T cells are also used to detect
cancer cells in the human body. Humanized monoclonal antibodies can also be used as to
kill the cancer cells by using direct action of the antibody. Some antibodies also acts as a
check point inhibitor and thus stop the uncontrolled cell division of the malignant cells
(Cancer Council Australia 2016).
7. Typhoid fever is a bacterial infectious disease and the causative agent behind this is
salmonella typhi. This gram negative bacteria is mainly transmitted through
contaminated water, food. Sometimes direct contact with the patient is also associated
with the transmission of the disease. After the infection of the disease the immune system
of the host detects the presence of the bacteria and activates the specific immune cells
that is monocytes and neutrophils and they counter the bacteria by the phagocytosis
process (CDC 2019).
8. Cancer associated antigens is also known as tumor antigens. It is a specific antigenic
substance that is produced by the tumor cells and as a result, the immune response is
triggered in the host. The tumor antigens are used as tumor markers in detecting specific
tumor cells. Moreover, it can be used in the cancer therapy treatment. Whenever, a cell is
converted into a malignant cell, the tumor antigen is produced and as a result the immune
system of the body recognize it as an abnormal particle. After that, the innate immune
system of the body specifically Natural killer cells or NK cells detects the antigen on the
surface of the tumor cells and ultimately destroy it. Macrophages, Neutrophils, dendritic

6BIOLOGY OF DISEASE
cells, NK cells, T cell and B cell of the body can recognize and destroy cancer cells
( CTCA 2017). The cancer cells expresses CD47 on their cell surface and as a result there
is binding of CD47 with the protein named SIRPalpha located on the surface of the
macrophages. This reduces the attacking and killing ability of the macrophages. That is
the reason, cancer cells can evade the immune system (Newman 2017).

7BIOLOGY OF DISEASE
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