Article Review on Age-Related Research on L2 Ultimate Attainment and Influences of Early English Language Teaching on Oral Fluency

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Article review
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Muñoz, C., & Singleton, D. (2011). A critical review of age-related research on L2 ultimate
attainment. Language Teaching, 44(1), 1-35.
The issue of the second language has been a topic of discussion for long years. This
article by Muñoz & Singleton (2011) highlights the issues of second language acquisition
regarding age-related attainment effects. It seeks to answer the question of whether those effects
can be discussed or elaborated regarding their impact on a broader range of aspects. There has
been undeniable evidence proving the strong connection between age factor and the success of
learning and understanding an additional language (L2). Nevertheless, major controversies
surround this issue for many decades now. Two questions have been addressed in this paper that
points out the area of contention; (1) Could there be a window of constrained opportunity- that is
the critical period, that ends at the end or during the childhood period and is connected to
language acquisition? At which stage does the effectiveness of acquiring and learning new
language start to become less effective, more arduous, or unsuccessful in its outcome?
(2) Does the impact of factors affect the outcome of language-acquiring capacity concerning the
changes connected with age or does it stem from a language-focused critical period?
Muñoz & Singleton, (2011) in the current study focused majorly on four issues in their pursuit of
determining how age factor influences the attainment of L2 language acquisition.
(i) Determining the extent at which native-like performance can be regarded as a dire standard in
the measurement of L2 attainment.
(ii) Determining the degree to which the unitary Critical Period Hypothesis can be achieved.
(iii) Comparing the various variables such as linguistic, contextual, and age and how they relate
to the onset of L2 acquisition.
(iv) Analyzing different parts of the brain used during early and late language acquisition.

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Point of comparison using the native speaker
Individuals who have been exposed to a certain language since the time they were born,
have a greater chance of learning an L2 language quickly as compared to those that have
encountered it for the first time when they are grown up already. Therefore, there is a high
likelihood of success for the L2 language learning in the native speakers. The authors, therefore,
aimed to understand how native-speaker yardstick influences the attainment of L2 language.
They observed that there is a close link between people who acquire a certain language in the
early stages of their life and native-speaker performance as compared to those who acquire it in
later stages (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 2014). However, this comparison needs more
understanding and elaboration in exploring the maturation and age effects issues. The late
acquirers mostly can be grouped into two classes; children who had no chance to have a
linguistic interaction or been deprived of their rights to normal human social relations. The
second group included children who were born deaf and got no opportunity to learn through
language/signed input until a later stage. Llurda (2016), explains that it’s hard to define the
concept of a native speaker. However, he tries to bring out the concept of temporary
performance. Away from this, Abrahamsoon & Hyltenstam (2008) established that various
language aptitude ranks that the late L2 learners possessed, had a significant influence on the
success of the L2 acquisition. The native speaker can be described as culture-bound, and a huge
difference is observed between the child L2 acquirer and the post-pubertal L2 acquirer regarding
inborn bio-endowment.
Determining the critical period offset points
Human brain progressively becomes rigid and stiff when one attains the age of nine.
According to Birdsong, (2014), if one learns the L2 language in later stages, one cannot achieve

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good results as compared to one who learns it in early stages. Puberty as well has been shown to
be the critical offset point for L2 learning. After this, the concept of language-learning-blocks
increases and, therefore, learning of foreign languages calls for a conscious and great effort.
Phonetics and phonology are other factors that influence the offset points (Hakuta, Bialystok, &
Wiley, 2003). Therefore, pointing out the exact end of a critical period in language learning
remains elusive to date.
Factors influencing L2 language acquisition
Quality input and contextual factors have a huge role to play in the success of L2
learning. The biological age, length of residence/exposure, and age of onset are some of the
factors that influence how one responds to foreign language learning. In the same way
interaction with the length of years that one has been in contact with the native language and the
environment influences the diversity and intensity of obtaining the L2 language. The same is true
for people who have been exposed to some degree of a foreign language while growing as
compared to those who learn it for the first time in their adulthood. Social-affective and cognitive
factors as well have an impact on the learning experience of an individual. Willingness to learn a
new language also enables one to be fluent and proficient within a short period.
Neurolinguistics dimensions
Little is known on how the brain works regarding language acquisition learning. L1 and
late-acquired L2 time frames have been determined by the part of the brain used as it varies. It
has been shown that a patient who suffers from the Broca’s area of the brain has selective L2 loss
thereby proving that it’s the region responsible for native language acquisition. On the other
hand, L2s could be influenced by the left frontal gyrus. For instance, L1 grammar learning is
implicitly attained while L2 is obtained explicitly. The study, therefore, concluded that both the