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This paper is okay on the prism of doing literature review, your topic is a common one in the world of mental health, hence a lot of research which needs to be quoted, further in doing literature and making analysis it is even advised that after every 150 words there is a need for reference, hence in my expert view the paper is okay. Because also removing some of those reverences plagiarism will even increase due to prevalence of those words in many researchers, so its better reference after all they are not your ideas. This task is based in word count which is 2500 words that is the offered count.There is no penalty for the same trust me Review on Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder-ADHD University Name Date
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Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder2 Table of Contents Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.....................................................................................3 Presentation................................................................................................................................4 Assessments...............................................................................................................................5 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-DSM-V............................................................................5 International Classification of Diseases –ICD 10..................................................................5 Behavioral ratings..................................................................................................................5 Continuous performance tests................................................................................................6 Comparative assessment of adults and children....................................................................6 Strengths and weakness..............................................................................................................7 DSM-V....................................................................................................................................7 Behavioral ratings..................................................................................................................8 Continuous performance tests................................................................................................9 International Classification of diseases-11............................................................................9 Cultural sensitivity of the assessment practices.........................................................................9 Ethics of assessment procedures..............................................................................................10 Recommendations....................................................................................................................11 Future research focus...............................................................................................................12 References................................................................................................................................13
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder3 Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder-ADHD Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a mental condition occurring in neural development. It is influenced by challenges regarding paying attention, excessive activity, and exercise regardless of the consequences which are not appropriate for the age bracket (LenziCortese, Harris & Masi,2018). Often persons with ADHD display challenges in regulating emotions. Symptoms often appear before the age of 12 years and cause problems in settings such as schools and recreational activities (Dulcan & Lake, 2011). Among children, attention in schools is often affected leading to poor school performance. Further, it is associated with substance abuse and mental disorders (Erskine et al., 2016). Despite the increasing amount of studies and evidence gathered about this disease, the exact cause is not known, however, it is estimated that a larger proportion of these occurrences (75%) are due to genetic factors (Demontis, 2019). Environmental risks such as exposure to nicotine affect about 5%-7% of the children diagnosed using the DSM-IV criteria (APA, 2013) and about 1%-2% diagnosed using ICD-10 criteria (Harrison, Cowen, Burns & Fazel, 2017). Further studies have shown that about 30%-50% of the children diagnosed often display symptoms transcending to adulthood while 2%-5% of this display symptom of the ADHD (Ginsberg et al., 2014). It is estimated that ADHD affects about 8-20% of children, and observed among men more compared to females (Ornoy, Rivkin & Barlev, 2018). ADHD is characterized by executive functioning, control of impulse and inattention impulsivity,Children having this condition often display inappropriate levels of developmental activities which leads to challenges towards daily function activities(Barkley, 2014). Children affected are unable to sit while paying attention and often struggle on any given tasks and inappropriate talking.
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder4 These behaviors portray significant challenges especially in academic settings due to limited focus and attention hence leading to poor performance. Presentation Hyperactivity, inattention, disruptive behavior and impulsive engagements are common in ADHD. Academic challenges are often prevalent and also difficult in establishing relationships. This makes it difficult for carers to draw a line on diagnostic procedures. According to the 5thDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental disorders- DSM-V symptoms presented need to be 6 or more presenting a greater degree compared to others of the same age and cause inherent and observable problems in at least two settings. Further, the criteria need to be met before age twelve to receive a diagnosis of ADHD. ADHD is divided into three domains; predominate inattentively (ADHD-P1 OR I), predominantly hyper- reactive (ADHD-PH OR HI) and the combined type (ADHD-C). Inattentive characteristics entail likely demonstrating activities such as inability to pay close attention, difficulty in maintaining tasks, none attentive appearance, frequent carelessness, easy distraction, forgetting tasks and challenges in following instructions. In the predominantly hyperactive-impulsive state; the person is often on the constant on the go, inability to be seated, persistent fidgeting, excessive talking, and difficulty in playing and reluctant to take a turn. In a combined ADHD, the characteristics are often a combination of the above two types. Among children in schools, learning-based activities such as reading are affected. With the challenges regarding ADHD, reading is often a difficult task for children. Further, they often present with challenges and defects with regards to reading comprehension abilities (Fienup et al., 2015).
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Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder5 Assessments Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-DSM-V In managing psychiatric disorders, formal diagnosis needs to be made based on set criteria. In America, the application of the American Psychiatric Association –DSM manual is applied to assess ADHD. This tool applies to the three categories of ADHD. The predominantly inattentive ADHD, have symptoms occasioning forgetfulness, distraction, disorganization, poor concentration, daydreaming and task completion difficulties. In predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type has a presentation of excessive fidgetiness, hyperactivity, waiting for difficulty, immature behavior, and destructive behavior. In Combined type ADHD; it signifies the various observations above (APA, 2013). For a diagnosis to be made, a presentation of at least six out of the outlined symptoms has to be made. Further, the symptoms need to be inappropriate for the age bracket of the children and clear behavior observation on social, work or school associated issues (Steinau, 2013). International Classification of Diseases –ICD 10 International Statistical Classification of diseases and associated health problems, which are analogous to the DSM-5. In this assessment tool, conduct behavior is a definitive term encompassing attention disturbance and disruptive activity levels. Behavioral ratings Behavioral ratings are some of the key underlying aspects under the DSM-V defining characteristics for ADHD. Parental ratings with clinical are the most valuable resource for providing children behavior at home. There are various concerns with regards to this tool, many parents might have the condition due to its genetic inference thus afflicted the reported
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder6 method. Parental symptomatology can have an impact on the ratings which overall; affect and impact the ratings posing a threat to validity (Lewandowski & Lovett, 2014). The application of teacher ratings coupled with parental ratings of behavior has been employed. However fundamental findings have been observed in this tool. Parental rating of school behavior was more correlated to home behavior more than teacher behavioral ratings. Many parents infer the behavior of their children at home characteristics to that in schools (Mahone, 2011). Continuous performance tests Objective assessments of assessing ADHD behaviors have been employed. Continuous performance tests have been employed and used in assessing inattentive and hyperactive behaviors. This test entails individuals to observe a stimulus sequence in the screen while offering response on target stimuli and withholding responses to nontarget stimuli. This test has adequate psychometric properties and findings of abnormal behavior, its utilization is quite low occasioned with its inherent low predictive value. Children diagnosed with ADHD using these tests have been shown to have nonelevated values making it a limited tool for ADHD diagnosis and assessment(Sims & Lonigan, 2012). Comparative assessment of adults and children Among adults, ADHD is diagnosed using the same criteria. Further signs must have been displayed at an early age between ages 6 and 12. Interrogative aspects of their behavior during childhood is part of the assessment, further family history is considered. The core underlying symptoms of ADHD among children and adults are often similar, the differential observance is seen among adults than the children. These can entail an increased physical
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder7 activity which is observed among children, while adults can display increased levels of restlessness and mental activeness (Kooji et al., 2010). Statistics have shown that about 2%-5% of adults have ADHD, in children population 25-50% presentation presenting with ADHD progress with the symptoms to adulthood accounting for the adult occurrence with symptoms while the rests do not show any characteristics (Kooji et al., 2010). The majority of the adult population does not get medical management, they present with a disorganized life and present with excess drug abuse usage. Other aspects entail challenges in managing relationships, jobs, and increased criminal activities. Despite this, some of the symptoms displayed by adults often differ from childhood’s states. Children can engage in climbing and running around, while in adults they exhibit difficulties in relaxing or increased talking rates in social places. ADHD symptoms since childhood require an assessment t during adulthood, despite this, a proportion of the adults do not meet the ADHD criteria might not have been diagnosed during childhood. Late-onset of ADHD symptoms among children can be considerably adolescent or adult ADHD onset (Asherson& Agnew‐Blais,2019). Strengths and weakness DSM-V DSM-v has been utilized as a diagnostic tool for assessing mental disorders for a long period. This tool offers a set of advantages as well as drawbacks to its usage. The DSM has been extensively employed in the clinical arena in making diagnosis and assessment. The underlying advantages entail offering standardization, research guidance and key in therapeutic guidance. The DSM offers key benefits to both the clinician and patients; it offers
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Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder8 standardization of diagnosis and reception of appropriate treatment processes. It facilitates guidance in research especially in the mental filed (Clarke & Kuhl, 2014). The checklists offer researches an avenue for reference. It facilitates therapeutic guidance and eliminates aspects of guesswork. The DSM diagnostic criteria offer a guide map in the care process. The underlying drawbacks entail oversimplification of human behavior which vast and wide (Nemeroff et al., 2013). It oversimplifies human-related behavior aspects making it lose track, further, it is concerned with misdiagnosis and overdiagnosis. The majority of the people can be labeled as having specific disorders due to aspects of ideal behavior (Bolton, 2013). This has been commonly been observed in ADHD. Further, labeling and stigmatization are influencing it as a drawback to the tool. Specific disorders labeling offers an avenue for stigmatization and differentiation of clients (Lingiardi & McWilliams, 2015). Behavioral ratings Behavior ratings assessments have been widely employed clinical tools in providing crucial information regarding child behavior. Despite this applied tools across settings, drawbacks have been observed. Parental bias ratings have been shown to have an impact on responses. Due to the genetic avenue of the condition parental symptomatology can pose a challenge regarding behavioral responses. Further, teacher rating assessing to have been shown to vary based on assessor level variations (Waterman, McDermott, Fantuzzo & Gadsden, 2020). The further occurrence of extraneous factors affecting teacher ability can have an impact on the assessment, leading to over-reporting of teachers(Phillips & Lonigan, 2010).
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder9 Continuous performance tests Continuous performance tests tool offers an avenue for circumventing the rating biases often found in parental and teacher behavioral ratings. This tool offers an avenue for patients to view the stimulus sequence while responding on a target stimuli and withholding nontarget stimuli. Due to various versions available, the continuous performance tests vary in their complexity making it a challenge to be adapted for young children. An example of such a version is the A-X tool task, which entails working memory component which often exceeds preschoolers' cognitive ability. In general preschoolers and school-age children often commit more errors, making these tool tests vulnerable for confounding factors (Sims & Lonigan, 2012). International Classification of diseases-11 ICD-10 offers an avenue for new health care practitioners as a new stand for clinical data assessment. Its inherent advantages entail offering an effective transition in the care practice, it enhances effective patient analysis leading to better care coordination. This test tool is applicable globally compared to other forms such as DSM-5 which is applied in the US alone. Cultural sensitivity of the assessment practices ADHD assessment patterns and behavioral perspectives of culturally diverse populations have often been underestimated. The rapid growth of diverse ethnic and minority populations globally and especially the US outline key disparities in the care process (La RocheCarrick & Hammerness,2015). The prevalence rates of ADHD among children are observed to be declining, however, statistics indicate that among non-Hispanic white, rates are higher compared to other population groups such as Latino, Hispanic or Asians (Bloom et
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder10 al., 2013). These differences can be attributed to the influence of reporting based on cultural meanings and biological differences regarding normal and abnormal behaviors (La Roche, Carrick & Hammerness,2015). Further, the rate of minority children with ADHD has low access to cure and treatment compared to non-Hispanic whites (Marcus & Durkin, 2011). The cultural psychotherapeutic framework of the minority parents often makes them hesitant to show and explain the behavioral challenges of the children concerning ADHD. Further, they are reluctant to believe whether these difficulties can be managed medically. Observation indicates that when the treatment protocols match that of the family culture, resources and vales, there is an increase in efficacy and adherence to the treatment process (La Rocher &, La Rocher, 2013). The current assessment protocols have often failed in entrenching these aspects of culture into its domain. Ethics of assessment procedures In managing ADHD assessments, health care practitioners are bound to their legal duty on optimal treatment of the child. Normal practice allows for consent seeking from parents while taking into account the views of the child. Despite concerns of sufficient autonomy, assessment and treatment need to be based on professional guidance. The process ensures that it involves autonomy, beneficence, and non-maleficent in the care process delivery (Jonsson et al., 2016). Treatment safety practices have at times lead to ethical challenges beneficent, non- maleficent and respect for autonomy during the initial assessment. Due to the young of the children, the overwhelming responsibility of autonomy is placed on the parents while respecting the child’s autonomy, as the treatment is a long duration process. Due to this, there
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Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder11 is a need for child appreciation on the treatment process to enhance the balance autonomy as it is shifting as the child ages (Chan, Fogler & Hammerness, 2016). More common in ADHD, ethical concerns often tend to arise on beneficence and non- maleficent. At school levels, teachers may restrict children who have hyperactive-impulsive before they are medicated due to their behavior in school. This can lead to aspects of retribution however, in this challenge the needs of the child often is paramount. Balancing the conflicting principles is geared towards a possible outcome for the child. Recommendations Based on the underlying assessments focused on ADHD, culture perspectives inclusion remains to be a fundamental challenge in enhancing family ability to be open to children's adverse behaviors. The majority of the minority communities often exhibiting a high prevalence of ADHD are often reluctant to believe that such behavioral characteristics can be managed through medication. A classical example in an explanatory model demonstrates that the restlessness of a child can be a result of bad spirits, leading to seeking consultations to a priest rather than a psychiatrist (La Roche,Carrick & Hammerness,2015). Enabling treatments to match the values, practices and community resources, it increases the overall efficacy and treatment process. Thus given this, the need for adoption of the psychotherapeutic model in both assessment and treatment phases is essential in founding a shared understanding between the family and the health care practitioner on the problems showcased by the child, goals of treatment and key interventions to manage the state. In essence, this psychotherapeutic approach allows for the ADHD approach on the assessment of the child's cultural context and ethical views of approach towards a shared understanding. Family’s ability to understand behavior challenges needs to make a basis for the therapeutic process, thus improving the
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder12 overall assessment process, increasing the treatment process. A classical view is on aspects of hyperactivity and impulsivity which is a classical symptom of ADHD, can be viewed in terms of certain cultural contexts (Sue,Gallardo & Neville,2013), affecting the assessment process. Thus incorporating the cultural psychotherapeutic model in the assessment of ADHD among children across the population context is essential especially for the minority and indigenous populations who exhibit high levels of ADHD. Future research focus The need for an exploration of the contextual variables regarding culture concerning ADHD is of great interest. This can moderate or mediate medication management of ADHD. The potential of this avenue is to assess on risks and benefits of ADHD for family assistance. Consideration of the underlying ethical and cultural aspects in the treatment process is essential in informing diverse influence on clinical practice to have a shared avenue for behavior-related problems. Thus the need for a comparative assessment of cultural therapeutic framework assessment tools to other assessment methods in managing ADHD especially among the indigenous and minority groups is essential as they continue to exhibit elevated prevalence levels of ADHD.
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder13 References American Psychiatric Association-APA (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp.59–65. ISBN978-0-89042-555-8. Asherson, P., & Agnew‐Blais, J. (2019). Annual Research Review: Does late‐onset attention‐ deficit/hyperactivity disorder exist?.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 60(4), 333-352.doi:10.1111/jcpp.1302 Barkley, R. A. (2014).Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment.New York, NY: Guilford Press. RUL https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2014-57877-000. Bolton, D. (2013). Overdiagnosis Problems in the DSM-IV and the New DSM-5: Can They Be Resolved by the Distress—Impairment Criterion?.The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,58(11), 612-617. doi:10.1177/070674371305801106 Chan E, Fogler JM, Hammerness PG (2016) Treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adolescents: a systematic review. JAMA 315:1997–2008.DOI: 10.1001/jama.2016.5453. Clarke, D. E., & Kuhl, E. A. (2014). DSM-5 cross-cutting symptom measures: a step towards the future of psychiatric care?.World Psychiatry,13(3), 314.. doi:10.1002/wps.20154 Dulcan MK, Lake M (2011). "Axis I Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood or Adolescence: Attention-Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders". Concise Guide to Child and Adolescent Psychiatry(4th illustrated ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing. pp.34.ISBN978-1-58562-416-4. Erskine, H. E., Norman, R. E., Ferrari, A. J., Chan, G. C., Copeland, W. E., Whiteford, H. A., & Scott, J. G. (2016). Long-term outcomes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,55(10), 841-850. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.06.016.PMID27663939.
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Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder14 Fienup, D. M., Reyes-Giordano, K., Woloski, K., Aghjayan, A., and Chacko, A. (2015). Brief experimental analysis of reading deficits for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.Behav. Modif.39, 191–214. doi: 10.1177/0145445514550393 Ginsberg, Y., Quintero, J., Anand, E., Casillas, M., & Upadhyaya, H. P. (2014). Underdiagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adult patients: a review of the literature.The primary care companion for CNS disorders, 16(3).doi:10.4088/PCC.13r01600. Harrison, P. J., Cowen, P., Burns, T., & Fazel, M. (2017).Shorter Oxford textbook of psychiatry. Oxford university press.ISBN978-0-19-960561-3 Jonsson U, Alaie I, Löfgren-Wilteus A, Zander E, Marschik PB, Coghill D, Bölte S (2017) Annual research review: quality of life and childhood mental and behavioural disorders—a critical review of the research. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 58:439–469 Kooij, S. J., Bejerot, S., Blackwell, A., Caci, H., Casas-Brugué, M., Carpentier, P. J., ... & Gaillac, V. (2010). European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD: The European Network Adult ADHD.BMC psychiatry,10(1), 67.doi:10.1186/1471-244X-10-67.PMC2942810.PMID20815868. La Roche, M. J., & La Roche, M. (2013).Cultural psychotherapy: Theory, methods, and practice. Sage. ISBN-10: 145222515X La Roche, M. J., Carrick, O., & Hammerness, P. (2015). Pediatric ADHD and the cultural psychotherapeutic model.Psychiatric Times,32(7), 22-22. url https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/adhd/pediatric-adhd-and-cultural- psychotherapeutic-model. Lenzi, F., Cortese, S., Harris, J., & Masi, G. (2018). Pharmacotherapy of emotional dysregulation in adults with ADHD: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews,84, 359-367. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.010.PMID28837827.
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder15 Lewandowski, L. J., and Lovett, B. J. (2014). “Learning disabilities,” inChild Psychopathology, eds E. J. Mash and R. A. Barkley (New York, NY: Guilford Press), 625–669.doi:10.1037/a0029558. Mahone, E. M. (2011).The Effects of ADHD (Beyond Decoding Accuracy) on Reading Fluency and Comprehension, New Horizons for Learning.URL: http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/Journals/Winter2011/Mahone Marcus, S. C., & Durkin, M. (2011). Stimulant adherence and academic performance in urban youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,50(5), 480-489.DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2011.02.007 Nemeroff, C. B., Weinberger, D., Rutter, M., MacMillan, H. L., Bryant, R. A., Wessely, S., ... & Malhi, G. S. (2013). DSM-5: a collection of psychiatrist views on the changes, controversies, and future directions.BMC medicine,11(1), 202. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-202 Ornoy, A., Rivkin, D., & Barlev, L. (2018). CHILDREN WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD): ACCESSIBILITY AND AVAILABILITY OF SERVICES IN ISRAELHarefuah,157(4), 219–224. url https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29688638/. Phillips, B. M., & Lonigan, C. J. (2010). Child and informant influences on behavioral ratings of preschool children.Psychology in the Schools,47(4), 374-390. doi:10.1002/pits.20476 Scassellati, C., Bonvicini, C., Faraone, S. V., & Gennarelli, M. (2012). Biomarkers and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,51(10), 1003- 1019.doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.08.015.PMID23021477. Sims, D. M., & Lonigan, C. J. (2012). Multi-Method Assessment of ADHD Characteristics in Preschool Children: Relations between Measures.Early childhood research quarterly, 27(2), 329–337.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.08.004
Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder16 Steinau S (2013). "Diagnostic Criteria in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - Changes in DSM 5". Frontiers in Psychiatry.4: 49.doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00049. PMC3667245.PMID23755024. Sue, D. W., Gallardo, M. E., & Neville, H. A. (2013).Case studies in multicultural counseling and therapy. John Wiley & Sons.ISBN:978-1-118-48755-6. Waterman C, McDermott PA, Fantuzzo JW, Gadsden VL. (2020) The matter of assessor variance in early childhood education-Or whose score is it anyway?Early Childhood Research Quarterly.in press. Advance online publication. URL.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.06.003.