Evaluation of Different Bilingual Education Models and Its Application on Primary School Children Literacy
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Studies in English Language Teaching
ISSN 2372-9740 (Print) ISSN 2329-311X (Online)
Vol. 5, No. 4, 2017
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/selt
667
Evaluation of Different Bilingual Education Models and Its
Application on Primary School Children Literacy
Yang Chen1*
1 International Education College, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, P. R. China
* Yang Chen, E-mail: jesseyc@qq.com
Received: October 24, 2017 Accepted: October 30, 2017 Online Published: November 3, 2017
doi:10.22158/selt.v5n4p667 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/selt.v5n4p667
Abstract
The term “bilingual education” can be described as a concept of educational research, based on its
literal meaning, it usually refers to any educational program that involves two languages in the
progress of teaching and learning. In modern society, bilingual education becomes increasingly
popular, and has been widely used for the purpose of early education in many countries. This essay
evaluates different types of bilingual education (early immersion, two-way language education,
maintenance education) by analysing their strengths and limitations mainly in aspects of first language
and second language development. From the systematic overview on the three most well-known forms
of bilingual education, the author finds that all of them have influence on improving language skills
and academic skills in a rolling basis while generally have no negative impacts on their growing
process.
Keywords
bilingual education, early immersion, two-way language education, maintenance education, primary
school children literacy
1. Introduction
Bilingual education, is a very significant role in human societies in terms of its social and cultural
influence and it has been practiced by many countries for a long time. It is said that bilingual education
has a history of more than 5,000 years, and the modern bilingual education development starts with an
International Bilingual Education Conference held by International Bureau of Education in Luxemburg
in the early 20th century (Brann, 1978).
According to the data from the World Bank (1995), the number of language spoken around the world is
estimated to reach 6,000. Data show that there is an increasing number of bilingual or multilingual
people nowadays (World Bank, 1995). Additionally, the huge amount of children who are educated by
a second or foreign language throughout the world stimulates the high speedy development of bilingual
ISSN 2372-9740 (Print) ISSN 2329-311X (Online)
Vol. 5, No. 4, 2017
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/selt
667
Evaluation of Different Bilingual Education Models and Its
Application on Primary School Children Literacy
Yang Chen1*
1 International Education College, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, P. R. China
* Yang Chen, E-mail: jesseyc@qq.com
Received: October 24, 2017 Accepted: October 30, 2017 Online Published: November 3, 2017
doi:10.22158/selt.v5n4p667 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/selt.v5n4p667
Abstract
The term “bilingual education” can be described as a concept of educational research, based on its
literal meaning, it usually refers to any educational program that involves two languages in the
progress of teaching and learning. In modern society, bilingual education becomes increasingly
popular, and has been widely used for the purpose of early education in many countries. This essay
evaluates different types of bilingual education (early immersion, two-way language education,
maintenance education) by analysing their strengths and limitations mainly in aspects of first language
and second language development. From the systematic overview on the three most well-known forms
of bilingual education, the author finds that all of them have influence on improving language skills
and academic skills in a rolling basis while generally have no negative impacts on their growing
process.
Keywords
bilingual education, early immersion, two-way language education, maintenance education, primary
school children literacy
1. Introduction
Bilingual education, is a very significant role in human societies in terms of its social and cultural
influence and it has been practiced by many countries for a long time. It is said that bilingual education
has a history of more than 5,000 years, and the modern bilingual education development starts with an
International Bilingual Education Conference held by International Bureau of Education in Luxemburg
in the early 20th century (Brann, 1978).
According to the data from the World Bank (1995), the number of language spoken around the world is
estimated to reach 6,000. Data show that there is an increasing number of bilingual or multilingual
people nowadays (World Bank, 1995). Additionally, the huge amount of children who are educated by
a second or foreign language throughout the world stimulates the high speedy development of bilingual
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/selt Studies in English Language Teaching Vol. 5, No. 4, 2017
668
Published by SCHOLINK INC.
education. However its implementation varies among countries because of its diversified types.
Therefore, the study of illustrating which type of bilingual education can meet the needs of educating
bilingual primary school children becomes increasingly popular in many countries.
The purpose of this essay is to illustrate the characteristics of different types of bilingual education,
analyse the effects of their applications on children, and also find out the best ways to educate bilingual
primary school children through examining the status quo of utilization of bilingual education in
primary schools around the world.
This essay starts with a systematic literature review of bilingual education as well as its classification
conducted by some well-known educators or scholars. Then, analyse the influences of different types of
bilingual education on children by means of illustrating practices of several widely-used models in
primary schools worldwide. Lastly this essay argues that each type of bilingual education has its
suitable application territory by evaluating the strengths and limitations of each single type.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Towards a Definition of Bilingual Education
With regards to the term “bilingual education”, it can be described as a concept of educational research,
while it tends to be very complicated with different situations in different regions and countries.
According to its literal meaning, “bilingual education” usually refers to any educational program that
involves two languages in the progress of teaching. Bilingual education has developed for a long time,
and many statements on its definition are concluded by some worldwide famous scholars like Anderson
and Boyer (1970), Skutnabb-Kangas (1988), etc. But here is a definition that is more relevant to the
primary school education, which is represented as “any system of school education in which, at a given
moment in time and for a varying amount of time, simultaneously or consecutively, instruction is
planned and given in at least two languages” (Hamer & Blanc, 2000). This definition stresses the use of
two languages as media of instruction rather than achieving academic purposes through two languages.
As Baker (2006) claims that, the term “bilingual education” is like “a simple label for a complex
phenomenon”. Although many scholars define bilingual education from different angles, most of them
share common ground in the following three aspects: school is usually the context of bilingual
education; two languages are involved as teaching languages; one of the two languages should be
students’ first language, and the other one is students’ second language.
2.2 Discussions on Types of Bilingual Education
Based on different standards and factors such as teaching goals, teaching means, nature of teaching
objects etc, there are many classifications for bilingual education. Mackey firstly classifies no less than
90 different types of bilingual education in terms of “the languages of the home, the languages of the
curriculum, the languages of the community in which the school is located, and the international and
regional status of the languages” (Mackey, 1972), but it is too detailed to identify. Another frequently
quoted distinction which is made by Hornberger consists of three types according to different
668
Published by SCHOLINK INC.
education. However its implementation varies among countries because of its diversified types.
Therefore, the study of illustrating which type of bilingual education can meet the needs of educating
bilingual primary school children becomes increasingly popular in many countries.
The purpose of this essay is to illustrate the characteristics of different types of bilingual education,
analyse the effects of their applications on children, and also find out the best ways to educate bilingual
primary school children through examining the status quo of utilization of bilingual education in
primary schools around the world.
This essay starts with a systematic literature review of bilingual education as well as its classification
conducted by some well-known educators or scholars. Then, analyse the influences of different types of
bilingual education on children by means of illustrating practices of several widely-used models in
primary schools worldwide. Lastly this essay argues that each type of bilingual education has its
suitable application territory by evaluating the strengths and limitations of each single type.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Towards a Definition of Bilingual Education
With regards to the term “bilingual education”, it can be described as a concept of educational research,
while it tends to be very complicated with different situations in different regions and countries.
According to its literal meaning, “bilingual education” usually refers to any educational program that
involves two languages in the progress of teaching. Bilingual education has developed for a long time,
and many statements on its definition are concluded by some worldwide famous scholars like Anderson
and Boyer (1970), Skutnabb-Kangas (1988), etc. But here is a definition that is more relevant to the
primary school education, which is represented as “any system of school education in which, at a given
moment in time and for a varying amount of time, simultaneously or consecutively, instruction is
planned and given in at least two languages” (Hamer & Blanc, 2000). This definition stresses the use of
two languages as media of instruction rather than achieving academic purposes through two languages.
As Baker (2006) claims that, the term “bilingual education” is like “a simple label for a complex
phenomenon”. Although many scholars define bilingual education from different angles, most of them
share common ground in the following three aspects: school is usually the context of bilingual
education; two languages are involved as teaching languages; one of the two languages should be
students’ first language, and the other one is students’ second language.
2.2 Discussions on Types of Bilingual Education
Based on different standards and factors such as teaching goals, teaching means, nature of teaching
objects etc, there are many classifications for bilingual education. Mackey firstly classifies no less than
90 different types of bilingual education in terms of “the languages of the home, the languages of the
curriculum, the languages of the community in which the school is located, and the international and
regional status of the languages” (Mackey, 1972), but it is too detailed to identify. Another frequently
quoted distinction which is made by Hornberger consists of three types according to different
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/selt Studies in English Language Teaching Vol. 5, No. 4, 2017
669
Published by SCHOLINK INC.
educational purposes: transitional, maintenance, and enrichment (Hornberger, 1991). Although
numerous scholars and educators like Hamers and Blanc (2000), Freeman (1998), etc, devote
themselves to bilingual education, and have some outstanding research fiindings in terms of its
classification, Baker (2006) concludes that those classifications are not systematic and intergral enough.
He divides biligual education into ten parts which can be collected into two categories: weak forms and
strong forms. The weak forms mainly aim at “assimilating the minority languages rather than maintain
them, including submersion, submersion with withdrawal classes, segregationist, transitional,
mainstream with foreign language teaching, and separatist” (Baker, 2006). On the other hand, the
strong forms intend to “develop both of the two languages that in use: immersion, maintenance or
heritage language, two-way or dual language, and mainstream bilingual” (Baker, 2006). Weak forms
contain bilingual children but bilingualism is not fostered in school, and strong forms have bilingualism
as an intended outcome. In that case, this essay primarily focuses on the strong forms of bilingual
education.
Immersion education, as a representative of the strong forms, is widely admitted as the most successful
model for application. A very favorable example of this is Quebec’s French immersion education which
is generally acknowledged by the public around the world. Not only Canada but also the United States
is a member of the earliest countries that implement bilingual education. But the type that has been
generalized in many primary and secondary schools throughout the entire country and becomes
extremely popular is the two-way bilingual education. With regards to the maintenance education, its
application in Wales is comparatively successful and has an ideal effect. The Welsh Office even issues
circumstances for the maintenance education implementation to ensure the quality of bilingual
education (Garcia & Baker, 1995). Mainstream bilingual education has limited effects on educating
bilingual pupils foreign languages, as a result, it will not be discussed in this essay. Though above three
countries have a large amount of important and remarkable achievements on each particular bilingual
education, there are still some shortcomings and limitations respectively. All of these will help us to
understand the advantages and disadvantages of different types of bilingual education in terms of
educating primary school children and weigh which is the best way. Therefore, this essay will analyse
the situations in Canada, the United States, and Wales severally and give an overall comparison with
respect to its effects on bilingual primary school children education especially the teaching of literacy.
3. Effects of Bilingual Education on Primary School Children
3.1 Immersion Education in Primary Schools in Canada
3.1.1 Background Information
Canada is the country where immersion education was born. In 1965, an experimental French
immersion kindergarten was set up by a group of English-speaking parents in Quebec (Paulston, 1988).
After proving it feasibility, French immersion education develops rapidly around Canada. The original
intention of implementing bilingual education in Canada is to reconcile and mediate the dispute
669
Published by SCHOLINK INC.
educational purposes: transitional, maintenance, and enrichment (Hornberger, 1991). Although
numerous scholars and educators like Hamers and Blanc (2000), Freeman (1998), etc, devote
themselves to bilingual education, and have some outstanding research fiindings in terms of its
classification, Baker (2006) concludes that those classifications are not systematic and intergral enough.
He divides biligual education into ten parts which can be collected into two categories: weak forms and
strong forms. The weak forms mainly aim at “assimilating the minority languages rather than maintain
them, including submersion, submersion with withdrawal classes, segregationist, transitional,
mainstream with foreign language teaching, and separatist” (Baker, 2006). On the other hand, the
strong forms intend to “develop both of the two languages that in use: immersion, maintenance or
heritage language, two-way or dual language, and mainstream bilingual” (Baker, 2006). Weak forms
contain bilingual children but bilingualism is not fostered in school, and strong forms have bilingualism
as an intended outcome. In that case, this essay primarily focuses on the strong forms of bilingual
education.
Immersion education, as a representative of the strong forms, is widely admitted as the most successful
model for application. A very favorable example of this is Quebec’s French immersion education which
is generally acknowledged by the public around the world. Not only Canada but also the United States
is a member of the earliest countries that implement bilingual education. But the type that has been
generalized in many primary and secondary schools throughout the entire country and becomes
extremely popular is the two-way bilingual education. With regards to the maintenance education, its
application in Wales is comparatively successful and has an ideal effect. The Welsh Office even issues
circumstances for the maintenance education implementation to ensure the quality of bilingual
education (Garcia & Baker, 1995). Mainstream bilingual education has limited effects on educating
bilingual pupils foreign languages, as a result, it will not be discussed in this essay. Though above three
countries have a large amount of important and remarkable achievements on each particular bilingual
education, there are still some shortcomings and limitations respectively. All of these will help us to
understand the advantages and disadvantages of different types of bilingual education in terms of
educating primary school children and weigh which is the best way. Therefore, this essay will analyse
the situations in Canada, the United States, and Wales severally and give an overall comparison with
respect to its effects on bilingual primary school children education especially the teaching of literacy.
3. Effects of Bilingual Education on Primary School Children
3.1 Immersion Education in Primary Schools in Canada
3.1.1 Background Information
Canada is the country where immersion education was born. In 1965, an experimental French
immersion kindergarten was set up by a group of English-speaking parents in Quebec (Paulston, 1988).
After proving it feasibility, French immersion education develops rapidly around Canada. The original
intention of implementing bilingual education in Canada is to reconcile and mediate the dispute
www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/selt Studies in English Language Teaching Vol. 5, No. 4, 2017
670
Published by SCHOLINK INC.
between French and English community. However, at present immersion education has become an
educational phenomenon with unexpected success and influence as it has changed the situation of
bilingual education and been deeply practiced all over the world.
3.1.2 Definition and Classification
With reference to the definition of the term “immersion”, unfortunately in most cases this word is
misunderstanded and misused for describing any course that is progressed by the instruction of a
foreign language by schools and public media. Immersion is definitely not simply teaching a class such
as mathematics and science in a second language. Here is a frequently quoted definition of
“immersion” which is from Genesee (1987), “generally speaking, at least 50 percent of instruction
during a given academic year must be provided through the second language for the program to be
regarded as immersion”. It is quite different from some other approaches in terms of educating children
because “it is for the target to master two majority languages and the children’s home language is
appreciated but not belittled” (Baker, 2006). Also, Roberts points out the dominant position of French
immersion in Canada, “when immersion is used with majority English speakers learning French,
immersion education is generally pluralistic and promotes additive bilingualism” (Roberts, 1995).
As an umbrella term, immersion bilingual education can be classified into various programs with
different standards. The most popular dimension is age which refers to the age children start
experiencing education. “Early immersion may be at the kindergarten or infant stage, and the middle
immersion usually begins at nine to ten years old which tends to be the late period of primary school,
while late immersion is designed for the secondary school level” (Baker, 2006). As a result, primary
school chidlren belong to the range of early immersion education. The other aspect is the time which
indicates how long children spent in immesion. Baker (2006) also mentions that they are total
immersion and partial immersion in terms of time. “Total immersion usually commences with 100%
immersion in the second language, reducing gradually to 50% finally, while partial immersion provides
close to 50% immersion in the second language throughout infant and junior schooling” (Baker, 2006).
One of the most successful examples of early total immersion is what has been mentioned above: the St.
Lambert experiment in 1965 (Lambert & Tucker, 1972).
3.1.3 Effects of Early Immersion Education
With reference to the immersion education in primary schools in Canada, a great amount of research
(Genesse & Gándara, 1999; Johnstone, 2002; Swain, 1997; Swain & Johnson, 1997) have been
conducted to illustrate and evaluate its effects on pupils. In order to examine the influence of early total
immersion education, this essay will comtrast the second language immersion pupils and first language
program pupils in terms of the following aspects: the second language skills, the first language skills,
and other academic content curriculum performance.
Firstly with respect to the second language learning in immersion education, it is widely acknowledged
that children can acquire the first language and second language skills simultaneously favorably
(Johnson, 2002). Moreover, some pupils can even achieve the level of native-like in second language.
670
Published by SCHOLINK INC.
between French and English community. However, at present immersion education has become an
educational phenomenon with unexpected success and influence as it has changed the situation of
bilingual education and been deeply practiced all over the world.
3.1.2 Definition and Classification
With reference to the definition of the term “immersion”, unfortunately in most cases this word is
misunderstanded and misused for describing any course that is progressed by the instruction of a
foreign language by schools and public media. Immersion is definitely not simply teaching a class such
as mathematics and science in a second language. Here is a frequently quoted definition of
“immersion” which is from Genesee (1987), “generally speaking, at least 50 percent of instruction
during a given academic year must be provided through the second language for the program to be
regarded as immersion”. It is quite different from some other approaches in terms of educating children
because “it is for the target to master two majority languages and the children’s home language is
appreciated but not belittled” (Baker, 2006). Also, Roberts points out the dominant position of French
immersion in Canada, “when immersion is used with majority English speakers learning French,
immersion education is generally pluralistic and promotes additive bilingualism” (Roberts, 1995).
As an umbrella term, immersion bilingual education can be classified into various programs with
different standards. The most popular dimension is age which refers to the age children start
experiencing education. “Early immersion may be at the kindergarten or infant stage, and the middle
immersion usually begins at nine to ten years old which tends to be the late period of primary school,
while late immersion is designed for the secondary school level” (Baker, 2006). As a result, primary
school chidlren belong to the range of early immersion education. The other aspect is the time which
indicates how long children spent in immesion. Baker (2006) also mentions that they are total
immersion and partial immersion in terms of time. “Total immersion usually commences with 100%
immersion in the second language, reducing gradually to 50% finally, while partial immersion provides
close to 50% immersion in the second language throughout infant and junior schooling” (Baker, 2006).
One of the most successful examples of early total immersion is what has been mentioned above: the St.
Lambert experiment in 1965 (Lambert & Tucker, 1972).
3.1.3 Effects of Early Immersion Education
With reference to the immersion education in primary schools in Canada, a great amount of research
(Genesse & Gándara, 1999; Johnstone, 2002; Swain, 1997; Swain & Johnson, 1997) have been
conducted to illustrate and evaluate its effects on pupils. In order to examine the influence of early total
immersion education, this essay will comtrast the second language immersion pupils and first language
program pupils in terms of the following aspects: the second language skills, the first language skills,
and other academic content curriculum performance.
Firstly with respect to the second language learning in immersion education, it is widely acknowledged
that children can acquire the first language and second language skills simultaneously favorably
(Johnson, 2002). Moreover, some pupils can even achieve the level of native-like in second language.
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