Biology Exam: Signs, Symptoms and Pathological Basis for Cerebral Malaria, Coinfection and Helminths, Transmission of Food-borne Trematodes

This biology exam covers the signs, symptoms, and pathological basis for cerebral malaria due to plasmodium falciparum, the interaction between helminths and microbial infectious agents, and the transmission of food-borne trematodes. It discusses risk factors for human and animal infection and control strategies. Course code and college/university not mentioned.

BIOLOGY EXAM

Table of Contents
QUESTION AND ANSWERS........................................................................................................3
Discuss the signs, symptoms and pathological basis for cerebral malaria due to an infection
with plasmodium falciparum?................................................................................................3
Discuss example from the medical filed where coinfection greatly after the outcome of
disease (50%). What evidence is there those helminths interact with the microbial infectious
agents to after disease outcomes.............................................................................................5
Discussing transmission of food-borne trematodes including attention to risk factor for human
and animal infection along with their control strategies........................................................7
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................10

QUESTION AND ANSWERS
Discuss the signs, symptoms and pathological basis for cerebral malaria due to an infection with
plasmodium falciparum?
Sign: Cerebral malaria is defined as disease which have number of symptoms that show some of
the characterized by fever, headache, irritability, restlessness, agitation, seizures, vomiting,
drowsiness and rapid onset coma which is show the factor of untreated patient. In the various
areas which is associated with the condition of endemic, any child presenting with fever and
altered sensorium which is investigated and treated for cerebral malaria (Wang and et. al., 2018).
Symptoms: There are some of the cold symptoms which is associated with the malaria which is
cerebral in nature are usually shows some of the sign and symptoms include fever, general
feeling of discomfort, nausea, and vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, muscles pain or any kind
of joint pain which is occur between the bones. In this, some people are usually experience of
phase of malaria attacks which shows some of the symptoms such as chill and shivering which is
considered as a symptom of cerebral malaria which is followed by a higher fever. Moreover, it is
also associated with the sweating and take a longer time to return on the normal temperature. As
per this, the malaria sign and symptoms typically begin with a few weeks after being bitten by an
infected mosquito. However, there are various types of parasites which shows their dominant
behaviour against the host body which can regulate it on the high risk of malaria which is usually
the main causes of cerebral malaria is single celled parasites of the genus plasmodium. In this, in
the cerebral malaria is usually offer due to the bite of plasmodium falciparum. In this, the
mosquito transmission cycle is it is started with an infected mosquitoes to the transmission of
parasite and then they replicate their numbers in the liver and with the help of blood stream.
They can transmit from one person to another in order to understand it completely the
pathophysiology of the pathogenicity is essential aspect to understand the structure and
framework of plasmodium falciparum in the host body (Villaverde and et. al., 2020).
Pathology: Cerebral malaria is the most critical neurological consequences of the infection by
plasmodium falciparum. It is a type of clinical syndrome whose hallmark is impaired
consciousness with coma being the most critical manifestation. As per the clinical features of
malaria including cerebral malaria shows a very relaxing fever which is produced after parasites
released upon rupture of plasmodium infected red blood cells. In this, the patient with the acute

infections have availability to defuse the cerebral malaria encephalopathy with a rapid
progressive coma or any kind of seizure with the return of consequences. In some cases, focal
neurologic signs are present and at the end stage of disease children often display signs of brain
system dysfunction such as and normal pupillary and corneal reflex is off with a deconjugate
irregular breathing pattern. Moreover, the sequence and others pattern such as cortical blindness
improved time long-term clinical follow-up assessment with the cerebral malaria shows various
elevated persistence of neurological condition such as cognitive impairment in the children.
These neurological sequences may lead to create hindrance in the quality of life and laws of
disability (Oliveira and et. al., 2017).
However, neuropathy genesis leading to the poor neurological outcomes in the children
and adults the autopsy founded that the intravascular sequence of plasmodium infected red blood
cells is related with the perivascular damage including axonal injury. Moreover, the myelin sheet
completely loss their focus and breakdown of the blood-brain barrier is occur the blood-brain
barrier is a core foundation of any human to create a barrier for those amino acids who is not in a
perfect sequence which is identified the most body to enter in the bloodstream. In this, the
plasmodium factors may have both direct and indirect effect on the blood brain barrier which
may be analysed by cytokine storm and influx of plasma factor including albumin that is toxic to
neuron (Wassmer and et. al., 2017).
Whereas, in the various patients of cerebral malaria shows the report that the brain
respective for the regions. However, the autopsy revealed that the host vascular responses is not
dominant. In this, the multiple haemorrhagic punctuate lesions is a related in the white matter
area and corpus callosum but not visible in the brain region such as grey matter for basal ganglia.
Moreover, the plasmodium falciparum also a feature a predominance behaviour of the white
matter damage as shown in the various pathological studies and magnetic resonance imaging is a
technique to verify and take amplification with the proper look of cerebral malaria. In this, the
situation which is usually responded with the various potential phenotypic heterogeneity
comprised of local host vasculature that can influence the differential plasmodium red blood
cells sequence which can need to create the alternate host responses (Larbi and et. al., 2020).
Cerebral malaria is a medical emergency which is associated with the number of patients
with plasmodium falciparum malaria with neurological manifestations which shows treatment as
a case of cerebral malaria, the pathogenesis of the cerebral malaria is due to the damage of

vascular endothelial by parasite sequences. In this, inflammatory cytokine production and
vascular leakage which can result to create the condition of brain hypoxia which indicate the
enhanced lactate and alanine concentration.
Discuss example from the medical filed where coinfection greatly after the outcome of disease
(50%). What evidence is there those helminths interact with the microbial infectious agents
to after disease outcomes.
Helminthes is a parasitic worm which is most common infectious disease of humans in the
associated developing countries in which the used to formulate a global burden of disease which
can create various consequences and complications to the number of people. Moreover, by
taking the aspect of malaria and tuberculosis this disease has also honoured with scope which
can create for infection after the disease outcome. As per the new vision, it is identified that the
fundamental helminth is shows some equation to was the accumulation of genome project and
various applications of transgenesis and RNA interference technology to eradicate the issues and
understand the dynamic behaviour of transmission of helminth is and the mechanism of immune
responses to was the interaction with the parasitic worm has enhanced. As per this, there are two
major of helminth is which is denoted by nematode which is also known as round worms and
another one is intestinal worm which is known as soil transmitted helminths in which the filarial
worm is also cause the condition of lymphatic. Whereas, the Platyhelminthes which is known as
flatworm include the flukes which is comes from the family of trematodes which shows various
accessibility towards the tape form and so on (Kumar and et. al., 2019).
As per the observation of various people who is infected with the helminths in worldwide
are estimated have confirmed Stoll initiation observation. In this, it is estimated that
approximately one third of the people around the world which is shows the approximation of 3
billion people are used to create the various infections which is created and generalized by the
helminths. The most common helminthiasis is those which is caused by the infection with the
intestinal helminths. Moreover, the scenario which is typically define some of the practical
knowledge which shows the inhabitant of thousands of rural, villagers throughout the tropics and
subtropics are shows of chronic information regards with the infection with several different
species of parasitic worm which can create the worse condition different populations which is
shows some of the regards that the co-infection is shows the outcome after the disease condition.

Adding to the global morbidity which show the results from the host who faces the
consequences of helminths infection are the observation that they have the both direct and
indirect which show the effect on malaria and HIV/AIDS in developing countries. Helminth
which can consider the uncommon or the individual to be coinfected with the malaria causing
parasite and one and more parasitic worm. The coinfection has additive effects, such as severe
anaemia and synergistic effects such enhanced transmission of the malaria causing parasite, HIV
and the enhanced suspectable for the infection which is pathogen as well as cause and
exacerbated progression of the two killer diseases. However, the tool the currently working the
controlled worm infection are limited. In this, they are various albendazole, oxamniquine,
praziquantel and ivermectin which is medication which helps to develop to treat helminthiases.
Together with diethylcarbamazine which developed in the half which productive in nature
twentieth century. The dearth of the viable anthelmintic agents partly reflects which help to
confirmed the modest commercial market which applied in the various proximal zone
(Kampondeni and et. al., 2020).
There are various drugs and medication which are used to involve with the common
infection of helminthiasis. Moreover, the sequence and various conditions are used to receive the
medication and intervention and order to create the remarkable factor which can create a unique
biochemical metabolism of parasitic worm. In this, they used to show various maternal and child
health which can create major complication due the diseases of helminths. As per the studies and
various survey, it is analyzed that the disease caused by interaction that helminths are considered
neglected tropical disease and the study of this is received less than 1% of the global research
investment. In order to create the outcome after the disease the coinfections are usually reduced
by taking the prospect and the help of biomedicine which is shows the relevance in nature by
their molecules which can be innovative in nature and with the various aspect of Nanomedicines
which is hopefully create a diversification. As per the present scenario this Nanomedicine is
helpful to create a combat with the infection of helminths. In this, they also used to influence the
development of new therapeutic for the human illness.
In this, the climate and topography are the usual and crucial determinants in order to
maintain the distribution of helminth infection moreover the various categories which can
categories the factor of transmitted by vector are creating in the limited scope which can shows
various relevance in order to develop the host and vector come together in the same habitat.

Moreover, while result in a high focal distribution that is very necessary to create abiotic and
abiotic features which include climatic physical and chemical factors which affect the survival
and the development. As per the various cases, the distribution and incidence of the disease are
limited by biogeographic variations favorable exposures to the blackfly vectors. Moreover, the
soil transmitted helminth is are highly affected by the service temperature which is conventional
include altitude, soil types and the factor of rainfall (Apoorv and et. al., 2018).
Discussing transmission of food-borne trematodes including attention to risk factor for human
and animal infection along with their control strategies
Foodborne trematodes refers to a group of disease which includes Clonorchis, parasites,
fasciola, Opisthorchis. These are some of the parasitic flocks which have complex life cycle and
involves diverse definitive host along with one or more than one intermediate hosts. Foodborne
trematodes can cause human infection with the conjunction of contaminated foods likes
vegetable, crustaceans and raw fish. This is the infection that can cause result in lung cancer and
severe liver cancer. These diseases are together can cause 2 million life per years lost to
disability along with within the globe every year. Foodborne trematodes refers to Zoonotic
infection which can create complex life cycle within an human host. This virus-infected human
when they ingest infected intermediate host which includes aquatic vegetable to which there is
attachment of parasitic larvae. According to World health Organization, there are more than 600
million people die or fall ill due to consumption of contaminated food. There is estimation of
foodborne disease which can caused due to 31 agents which includes parasites, virus, bacteria,
toxins and chemicals. Food borne tremendous refers to a broad group of illness which increase is
severity along with term disability and that it also includes pre-existing immunity and elict
immune response with their host factor. This creates a variety of food borne diarrhoea with some
vulnerable segments of population (Kuleš, 2021). There are many countries which has been
impacted due to foodborne trematodes where Africa and southeast Asia region have highest
incident and having highest number of death rate which includes children under age of 5 years.
This is the disease which have higher risk than having low and middle-income countries which is
linked with preparation of food along with unsafe water due to poor hygiene or inadequate
condition of food production and their storage. Africa region is highly estimated with higher
number of food borne trematodes to their population where more than 91 million people get sick
and about 13 million people die every year. Non typhoidal salmonella that is generally caused

due to contaminated egg and poultry which cause death. South East Asia region is another
country which gets highest burden of foodborne disease according to their population. There are
about 150 million cases where about 17 million deaths per year are reported (Kitphati, 2020).
There are many risk factor which can include human for the responsible of foodborne
illness. It leads to improve the improper temperature of potentially hazardous food, due to poor
employee health or has been improper cooking temperature of food, contaminated utensil or
equipment. These are some of the main reason which can include and enhance the risk of getting
infected through the foodborne trematodes.
Improper hot and cold holding temperature creates potential hazards food- This is one of
the risk factor which can include human to get hazardous food as their diet. This includes
enhancement in growing of pathogenic bacteria which presence in the food. There are number of
the bacteria which any person in just with their food and can create possible in less due to proper
temperature cooking and decreasing the number of pathogenic bacteria and protect human from
getting illness. Due to cooking of food at the proper temperature leads to create a less risk of
disease causing bacteria which can lead to create a possible risk of illness for the human
ingestion of improper temperature. This can enhance risk of illness due to ingestion of
pathogenic bacteria which can enhance their number and create illness within human.
In proper cooking temperature of food- This is another risk factor which can create a high
risk of ingestion of pathogenic bacteria as the diet. Diet like raw chicken have the higher risk of
enhancing pathogenic bacteria by ingestion. There is need to proper cooking of the food which
can help to kill the bacteria and able to slow down reproduction. Freezing is also helpful to make
bacteria go dormant. With the help of proper cooking temperature leads to kill bacteria and
provide safety from illness.
Contaminated of dirty utensil and equipment- This is the another risk factor which can
have higher chance of ability to contamination food and cause foodborne illness. When utensil or
equipment are not cleaned properly and frequently, then there is high risk of getting old food
residue which help to multiply bacteria rapidly and get contact with preparing food and create
illness to the people for human (Avendaño, 2020).
Food from unsafe sources- Individual need to focus on the sources of storage of food
which is highly impactful and create a high risk of getting pathogen or bacteria on the food
which can lead to create illness. There are different regulatory agency who had prepared some

standard for storage and procurement of food which can help to decrease the chances of getting
bacteria on food which is responsible for illness. Regulatory agencies like FDA (food and drug
administration) or United States department of agriculture (USDA) have made a standard
through which storage of food are focused to avoid the risk of getting illness.
There are number of a strategy which can be used to address and control foodborne
trematodes infection to infect human and animal. For this, there is need to use some strategy
which are going to be discussed further.
Injection of prepared food at proper temperature- This is one of the main strategies
which can be highly utilized to kill the bacteria and making proper healthy food to ingest.
Washing and proper cooking of food- This is another strategy which is highly applicable
for avoiding foodborne trematodes to infect human or animal. This can highly helpful in
ingestion of food by killing pathogen and bacteria which can create illness (Chen, 2017).
Proper storage- This is the strategy that can highly helpful in avoiding the contamination
of parasites or bacteria to stay on food. Proper storage can help to avoid the contamination of
bacteria on the food which can create illness.
Following a standard of FDA or USDA or regulatory body standard- These are the
regulatory body who have provided some standard for providing information related to storage
and preparation of food which can help to avoid the illness due to ingestion of bacteria or
pathogen which can impact illness.
Along with this management and strategy, there is also treatment for the food-borne trematodes.
This treatment is highly applicable and based on the population approach to take medicine and
proper manner to avoid the infection and get treated from illness (Kim Dang, 2018).

REFERENCES
Books and Journals
Apoorv and et. al., 2018. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is decreased in the mouse brain
during experimental cerebral malaria. Neuroscience letters, 662, pp.290-294.
Avendaño, 2020. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification as point-of-care diagnosis for
neglected parasitic infections. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(21),
p.7981.
Chen, 2017. Human cases of fascioliasis in Fujian province, China. The Korean journal of
parasitology, 55(1), p.55.
Kampondeni and et. al., 2020. Amount of brain edema correlates with neurologic recovery in
pediatric cerebral malaria. The Pediatric infectious disease journal, 39(4), pp.277-282.
Kim Dang, 2018. Consumer preference and attitude regarding online food products in Hanoi,
Vietnam. International journal of environmental research and public health, 15(5), p.981.
Kitphati, 2020. Worm-free Cooking, Fish Safety: Recommendation to Strategy for
Opisthorchiasis Prevention Program. International Journal of TROPICAL DISEASE &
Health, pp.65-73.
Kuleš, 2021. Complementary liver and serum protein profile in wild boars infected by the giant
liver fluke Fascioloides magna using tandem mass tags quantitative approach. Journal of
Proteomics, p.104332.
Kumar and et. al., 2019. Extracellular methemoglobin promotes cyto‐adherence of uninfected
RBC to endothelial cells: Insight into cerebral malaria pathology. Journal of cellular
biochemistry, 120(7), pp.11140-11149.
Larbi and et. al., 2020. Evaluation of endothelial biomarkers in the pathogenesis of cerebral
malaria in Ghanaian children. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 101, p.334.
Oliveira and et. al., 2017. Cerebral malaria induces electrophysiological and neurochemical
impairment in mice retinal tissue: possible effect on glutathione and glutamatergic
system. Malaria journal, 16(1), pp.1-10.
Villaverde and et. al., 2020. Retinopathy-positive cerebral malaria is associated with greater
inflammation, blood-brain barrier breakdown, and neuronal damage than retinopathy-
negative cerebral malaria. Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society, 9(5),
pp.580-586.
Wang and et. al., 2018. Glucose metabolism mediates disease tolerance in cerebral
malaria. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(43), pp.11042-11047.
Wassmer and et. al., 2017. Severe malaria: what’s new on the pathogenesis front?. International
journal for parasitology, 47(2-3), pp.145-152.