Functioning of Body Systems

This article discusses the interactions and roles of body systems in maintaining a healthy body. It covers topics such as the impact of exercise on the cardiovascular system, the roles of muscular system, electrolyte ions, and respiratory infections on the body. It also provides suggestions for maintaining a healthy body size and shape. The article is relevant for students studying anatomy, physiology, and related courses.

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INTERACTIONS OF THE BODY SYSTEMS
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Question one
The Brodie’s body size and shape are unhealthy according to his health status. It is not normal
for a 55-year-old male to weigh 95 kg, waist circumference of 100 cm and being 185cm at the
same time. The abnormal body size and shape of Brodie is due to his health complications of

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which he has been diagnosed with a cold disease which is also known as mild upper respiratory
infection. The ideal body size and shape for Brodie is supposed to rate at a waist girth of 25cm
lower than his hips. The waist girth for a normal health person should be equivalent to his or her
height minus 100 in centimeters. So, if the height of brodie was 185 cm tall the waist was
supposed to be 185 minus 100 which would be equal to 85 cm. The 95 kilograms of Brodie at 55
years can be termed as overweight while the 100 cm of waist circumference according to his
height can be considered as less like signs of obesity (Boron and Boulpaep, 2012). Brodie had
high blood cholesterol and his blood pressure was 150/95mmHg. All the Brodie’s problems were
due to lifestyles such as eating habits. Brodie requires to engage in activities like regular body
exercises so as to get health approach to reduce weight gain and also decrease the obesity
prevalence. High intake of fiber in the diet and reduction of energetic foods can help to protect
against obesity and weight gain. To decrease the risk of obesity and overweight and to retain the
normal body shape and size can be also be achieved through low intake of glycemic index meals.
The unhealth body size and shape changes is mostly brought by nutrition transition due to
lifestyle changes (Grogan, 2016).
Question two
The roles of muscular system in the body is to maintain the body posture, circulatory system
control and locomotion. During aerobic cell respiration a combination of Krebs cycle and
glycolysis are the efficient but a slower of generating adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the human
body. Anaerobic respiration involves glycolysis only which is inefficient but it is a quick way of
producing ATP where pyruvate is converted to lactose. Glycolysis involves the breakdown of
carbohydrate component like glucose by enzymes resulting to the production of pyruvate and
ATP. In Krebs there are sequence of reactions that converts the produced pyruvate into water,
carbon dioxide and further resulting to generation of ATP. The skeletal muscle fibers are
subdivided further into fast and slow- twitch and subtypes, these types depend on the metabolism
involved and the corresponding action (Kuznetsov et al, 2008).
The slow – twitch fibers are used during the endurance activities that need repeated and long-
term contractions such as running long distances or when maintaining a posture. The slow-
twitch contractions mostly depends on aerobic respiration where 30 ATP molecules are
generated from each molecule of glucose in the oxygen presence. The contractions are thus

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slower than in anaerobic respiration and therefore not suitable for rapid movements but, it is
efficient because one does not get tired quickly. As aerobic respiration requires large amount of
oxygen the slow- twitch fibers are accompanied with several blood vessels, myoglobin
concentrations and mitochondria. The slow- twitch plays a key role when a person is standing
(Handler and Coghlan, 2008).
The fast- twitch are commonly useful for quick movements like sprinting and jumping which
requires short durations of fast muscle contractions. Contrary to the slow- twitch fibers, the fast-
twitch fibers depend on glycolysis alone (anaerobic respiration) where two molecules of ATP are
produced per one molecule of glucose. It is not efficient like aerobic respiration but it is
appropriate for quick burst movements because it does not depend on oxygen (Gibala and
McGee, 2008). The lactate, a byproduct of glycolysis, decreases the PH by accumulation in the
tissue which makes it more acidic and produces a stingy feeling in the muscle while a person is
exercising. The accumulation of lactic acid (lactate) in the muscle tissue limits further anaerobic
respiration and this counter intuitive feedback is a feedback process that protect the muscle from
damage and over-exertion. Fast- twitch fibers do not require oxygen and contains fewer
mitochondria, myoglobin and blood vessels than slow- twitch fibers. Though the fast -twitch
fibers that uses anaerobic respiration is useful mostly while performing repeated exercising
alterations of the composition and a number of respirations is necessary to improve individual’s
activity to perform functions that are related to circulatory and respiratory systems improvements
(Johanson et al, 2008).
Question three
The circulatory system is planned in a way to ensure all body cells survives at any moment and
this is enabled through maintenance of the instantaneous chemical environment of all the cells in
the body. The respiration system is responsible for carrying oxygen to and removes the carbon
dioxide from the body cells through the blood. A lot of activities do occur in the body even when
one is at rest. The body cells require a lot of energy so as to perform several body activities like
creation of new cells, sending messages and transporting nutrients (Patel and Wang, 2010). The
cells need oxygen to enable them release energy stored in the food molecules such as glucose.
The cellular respiration path is responsible for the intake of oxygen by cells to breakdown the
food molecules to release energy. The respiratory systems work together to supply oxygen to the

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body cells. The cellular respiratory system takes up oxygen and brings its to the lungs as a person
breathes. After the digestive system broke down the food into smaller molecules, now the
circulatory system enters which transports the glucose and other nutrients from digestive system
into the body cells. In the same way the circulatory system transports oxygen into the cells from
the lungs. Now the body cells get what they need for the cellular respiration. The team of the
body system continues to work cooperatively to also remove carbon dioxide from the cells to the
lungs in the respiratory system (Sherwood, L., 2015). Through gaseous exchange that occur in
the lungs, carbon dioxide is removed from the body cells as the person breaths out. The red
blood cells are the ones that carries oxygen and carbon in and out of the blood. After inhaling the
oxygen diffuses via the walls of the alveoli and through the blood capillary walls into the red
blood cells. In the circulatory system the blood is pumped by the heart and it travels from and to
the cells in the blood vessels (Cooper, 2012).
Question four
Sodium, potassium and calcium are some of the electrolyte ions that help in excitability of the
nerve, permeability of the membrane, body fluids buffering endocrine secretion and in control of
the of body fluids in between compartments. 90% of the calcium that enters the body is
integrated into the teeth and bones. Bones serves as the mineral reserve for calcium and
phosphate ions. Around 2 pounds of calcium ions that enters the body are bounded to the bones
providing the hardness and the rest of its salt are incorporated into the tissues. Calcium assist in
stabilizing the cell membranes and it is crucial for release of hormones from the endocrine
glands and neurotransmitters (Rubin, R., 2013). Low calcium in the blood levels also called
hypocalcemia which occurs in hypoparathyroidism which can result to the removal of thyroid
gland as there are four knobs of parathyroid gland are entrenched in it. Abnormal high level of
calcium in the blood (hypercalcemia) occurs in principal hyperparathyroidism. Malignancies can
consequence in hypercalcemia (McKeever, 2008).
Sodium is a very important cation in the extracellular body fluid. The osmotic pressure that occur
between the surrounding environment and the interior of the cells is regulated by sodium.
Sodium is a major factor of high blood pressure in some persons. The hyponatremia, a condition
where sodium concertation is lower than normal is associated by accumulation of excess water in
the body that dilutes the sodium in the body. The excess water results to swelling of the cells,

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reduced oxygen carrying capacity, distension of red blood cells and this makes the cells too large
to fit through the capillaries. Furthermore, it results to bulging of the neurons in the brain and
this can damage the brain and even lead to death. The abnormal rise of sodium in the blood
(hypernatremia) that may results due to loss of water from the blood may lead in
hemoconcentration of all the blood constituents. The hormonal imbalance which involves
aldosterone and ADH could result to higher sodium values than normal (Adrogué and Madias,
2014).
Potassium is the main intracellular known cation. Potassium has petite effect on the osmotic
pressure. It helps in establishment of the resting membrane in the muscle fibers and neurons post
the membrane action potential and depolarization. An abnormal low quantity of potassium in the
blood level (hypokalemia) that occurs due to either an absolute or relative decrease of potassium
in the body because of re-distribution of ions of potassium. The insulin dependent diabetes
patients experience a comparative reduction of potassium ions in the body due to potassium re-
distribution. After insulin is administered and glucose consumed by cells, potassium ions passes
via the cell membrane together with glucose, reducing the amount of potassium in the
intracellular fluid and blood which may result to hyperpolarization in the neuron cells and thus
lowering their comeback to stimuli. Hyperkalemia is a condition of risen potassium level in the
body which can impair the functioning of the nervous system, skeletal muscles and the heart.
Hyperkalemia results due to increased intake of potassium in the diet. It can result to failure of
the cells to polarize and this effect the nervous system making the person to exhibit numbness,
mental confusion and weak respiratory muscles (Pohl, Wheeler and Murray, 2013).
Question five
Understanding the impacts of exercise in the cardiovascular system can motivate someone to
engage in regular daily exercises. Oxygen is extracted in the capillaries at the site of the cell and
exchanged for carbon dioxide as an end product of cellular breakdown. The veins transport the
carbon dioxide to the lungs for expiration and it is replaced with fresh oxygen through a process
so-called venous return. During exercise, the pumping of the muscles leads to venous return
through forcing the blood through one- way valves the central to the heart. The mean arterial
blood pressure of Brodie is going to be influenced by venous return through increasing of end
diastolic volume, total blood volume and thus increased the contractile strength and size of the

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heart’s muscles by engaging in his regular exercise. Regular exercises also increase the number
of blood capillaries at the muscles where carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged, decreasing
the peripheral distance (O'Brien et al, 2014).
.
Question six
The Brodie’s respiratory infection will influence his oxygenation for it involves the body organs
and parts that are associated with respiratory which works together with circulatory system. The
respiration track infection caused by virus affects the upper airway components. Sometimes it
becomes severe may results to significant dehydration and confusion, poor oxygenation due to
difficulties of respiratory and lethargy. The infection may worsen to shortness of breath in heart
and chronic lung disease for it lead to obstruction of pulmonary vessel or congestive heart failure
(Chen et al, 2011). The low level of oxygen due to the respiratory infection may cause air hunger
and breathlessness. Insufficient oxygen in the blood causes a bluish color on the fingernails, skin
and on lips. Respiratory infection may make someone to lose consciousness or sometimes
become sleepy and also may develop arrhythmias (Elgert, 2009). Over- the – counter (OTC)
medicines cannot prevent cold for it has no specific medicine for cold unless under
recommendation of the doctor. The body respond accordingly when a person is infected with
cold and thus one is supposed to adhere to what his or her body is telling to do. The most
important factor of the body for surviving and battling in the cold is its ability to adjust its
internal temperature at about 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit. In order for the body to adjust to cold it
decreases its muscle contractions and transfer the quantity of carbohydrate used. As the
temperature becomes more colder the nervous system decelerates a little and impulses that
controls muscle movement slows also. The body uses much of the carbohydrate to generate
lactic acid which in combination with slower nervous system forces the body to function slowly
so as to retain heat. Cold causes the blood vessels to tighten and this increases resistance of the
blood flow, firstly the blood reduces to the skin and its peripheries including feet, hands and
fingers. The body responds to cold through shivering as a venture of temperature back up by
allowing muscles to shake within the body and this generate heat (McFerran et al, 2009).
Question seven

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If Brodie developed severe coronary artery disease, it could lead to narrowing and hence
blockage of the arteries causing his heart receive low levels of blood and oxygen. The reduction
of the blood and oxygen flow would result Brodie’s chest pain, breathlessness and several
symptoms. A fully blockage of the artery results to heart attack due to anaerobic respiration that
would lead to accumulation of lactic acid to the muscle tissue. If the blood vessel that connects to
the brain gets blocked due to blood clot Brodie can develop an ischemic stroke. Coronary artery
disease would affect the functioning of Brodie’s heart muscle cell because, the physical plaques
due to atherosclerosis restrict the blood flow into the heart muscle cell through physical clogging
that cause abnormal artery functioning. The limited blood flow to the heart muscle leads to heart
starvation of oxygen and other vital nutrients it requires to work properly and aerobically (Wang,
Liu and Liao, 2008).

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