FIFA World Cup Research Paper 2022

“In any other corporation, if there were so many things that were found to be corrupt, then the
man at the top wold go – but the doesn’t seem to be the case with FIFA”
Gary Lineker
5th April 2020
MA Global Diplomacy
Centre for International Studies and Diplomacy
School of Oriental And African Studies
Word Count:
This dissertation is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of MA Global
Diplomacy of the School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London)
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I have read and understood the plagiarism regulations for students of the University
of London International Programmes. I undertake that all material presented for
examination is my own work and has not been written for me, in whole or in part, by
any other person. I also undertake that any quotation or paraphrase from the
published or unpublished work of another person has been duly acknowledged in the
work which I present for examination. I give permission for a copy of my dissertation
to be held at the University’s discretion, following final examination to be made
available for reference.
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Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS...........................................................................................................................3
1. CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................6
1.1. BACKGROUND OVERVIEW...........................................................................................................6
1.1.1. SOUTH AFRICA 2010 FIFA WORLD CUP.....................................................................................7
1.1.2. BRAZIL 2014 FIFA WORLD CUP..............................................................................................10
1.2. RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES...............................................................................................11
1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS..............................................................................................................12
1.4. PURPOSE AND OUTCOME OF THE STUDY.......................................................................................12
2. CHAPTER 2 – MEGA SPORTS EVENTS AS A TOOL FOR DIPLOMACY: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE 13
2.1. GAPS IN THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE...................................................................................23
3. CHAPTER 3 – SPORTS DIPLOMACY, SOUTH AFRICA AND THE 2010 FIFA WORLD CUP..............24
4. CHAPTER 4 – SPORTING DIPLOMACY, BRAZIL AND THE FIFA WORLD CUP OF 2014.................34
5. CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSION......................................................................................................45
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Abstract:
This piece of research goes into the depth of how mega sport events are now a part of the
diplomacy that takes place worldwide. The institutions mega event that will be under
discussion is the FIFA World Cup (Federation International Football de Football
Association). Over the years FIFA has made its mega event, the FIFA World Cup, a sought-
after event, and countries not only bid, but invest billions of dollars in infrastructure costs, in
compliance with FIFA to hold the event. The research will discuss aspects of the FIFA World
Cup in relation to diplomacy. Primarily, what the research will investigate is the impact the
FIFA World Cup had on the host nations of the 2010 and 2014 World Cup, which were South
Africa, and Brazil and how the politics of hosting a mega event encourages developing
nations to take on debt to develop infrastructure, which in turn can prove to be quite
detrimental for the states that are involved in the hosting of such events..
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Acknowledgments
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1. Chapter 1 – Introduction
1.1. Background Overview
FIFA since inception has set out its scope as to “help support the development of the
game and organize international competitions. FIFA also gives guidance on the rules and
management of the sport” (FIFA: 1).
FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association) has overtime with 211
member associations become the World’s biggest sports organisation (FIFA, 2017). Also,
over the years the FIFA World Cup has become a mega event, which is sought after by
countries due to its pull in bringing in tourism and making the host nation centre stage
worldwide due to the high viewership of the FIFA World Cup (Nauright: 1). An examination
will be made in regard to the role of the FIFA World Cup in international diplomacy, and
how governments and their respected football associations bid for the FIFA World Cup due
to its importance as being a symbol of development and progression in the country it is
hosted in. FIFA in being an autonomous entity has been in the spotlight for having little or no
oversight, and performing as an autonomous entity (Brannagan and Giulianotti,: 1). Also in
awarding the rights to the FIFA World Cup, FIFA holds all decision making related to the
development, that the host nation needs to take to host the mega event, this includes being
involved in infrastructure planning and stadium development (Abdi: 365). The FIFA World
Cup in South Africa and Brazil will be used as case studies to assess the gain and loss
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attained by both countries in hosting the World Cup, against the promises of prosperity that
go along with hosting the FIFA World Cup. Further an assessment will be made on how
diplomacy takes effect in the awarding of the FIFA World Cup, and how much of a role does
FIFA have in regard to the bidders for each edition of the World Cup. Sport and diplomacy
theory will be analysed in relation to the FIFA World Cup along each aspect of study, to
further understand the extent to which diplomacy and sport are related. For the 2010 and
2014 FIFA World Cups the theory of cultural diplomacy will be assessed and how it helped
portray Brazil and South Africa’s culture worldwide. Also, how mega events like the Football
World Cup are a part of a countries soft power strategy and how the 2010 South Africa
World Cup intertwined with the foreign policy of South Africa. Along with, how events such
as the World Cup as was held in Brazil can be responsible for giving a soft image of a nation-
state. Theories in relation to neoliberism, globalisation, remapping a city’s image, and how
the socio-economic benefits sometimes allow to act as a trigger for economic growth.
Another point of discussion is how Brazil used the 2014 FIFA World Cup to gain a bigger
role in global politics. Perhaps the most intriguing aspect to assess is how the impact of
hosting the event such as the FIFA World Cup can have on the future of diplomacy for the
host nation.
1.1.1. South Africa 2010 FIFA World Cup
The South Africa 2010 World Cup will be used as the case study for this study. The
reasoning for this is that it was the first African World Cup to ever take place, and it made a
place for South Africa in the history books and worldwide (Abdi: 147). Also this is an
important case study for the reason that the country when bidding, did not have the
infrastructure to host such a mega event, the government at the time had to agree to FIFA for
infrastructure and stadium development before the event could take place. This case study
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gives us an insight into the control the World Cup gives FIFA over a country in giving it the
rights to hosting the World Cup (Abdi: 147).
It was in the year of 2010, that the International Federation for Football gave the
country of South Africa the right to go ahead and host the World Cup Football tournament.
This is an opportunity that was seized by the South African administration at the time, as it
gave South Africa the perfect opportunity to engage in cultural and public diplomacy by
hosting a sporting event of such a stature, while providing the nation with the opportunity to
re-brand itself once again (Brannagan: 251). Yet it needs to be remembered that this was for
the very first time, that an African state was being given the scope to host an international
sporting tournament of the magnitude such as the FIFA World Cup, and at the time, a great
deal of scepticism was expressed by the international media about the ability of South Africa
to host this tournament. This scepticism was based on the general alarm that had been
triggered in South Africa by high rates of crime, something that had kept tourists from the
world from vising the country for quite a few years until then (Brannagan: 251). However,
the government of South Africa wasted no time at all in seizing the opportunity to host the
FIFA World Cup 2010 and viewed as a rebranding and rebuilding exercise for the nation
state. A budget of as much as forty billion South African dollars was set aside for bringing
about improvements in sporting infrastructure, including transportation links and the building
of stadiums, in order for the country to successfully prepare for the hosting of the world cup
(Jarvie: 22). This opportunity that was given by FIFA to host the World Cup of 2010 over
here, was viewed by the South African administration very positively and they saw in this
opportunity the scope to rekindle all the racial relations that had been on the decline in this
multi-racial state and where race barriers had come to be replaced quite unfortunately by a
wide range of socio-economic divides (Grix: 36).
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In the year of 2009, a year ahead of the FIFA World Cup 2010, the South African
administration had launched a campaign that came to be known as Brand South Africa 2010
Campaign. This campaign was segregated into four crucial segments, the first of these
segments being entitled as Football Fridays (Lee: 169). This is a segment that offered
widespread encouragement and support to the employees working in the public sector to go
dressed in casual clothes to their place of work, every Friday. They would be encouraged to
do so by donning colours such as green and yellow, which are the colours of the South
African national flag and also the colours of the South African national football team
(Jackson et al: 1) A slogan known as Fly the Flag for Football was raised and spread across
the South African cities and towns with the average South African citizen being asked to
promote and to endorse the national colours of the country when conducting their day to day
activities, be it hoisting the flag from the tops of their residences, wearing clothes that
reflected the colours of the national flag or by planting flags in their cars or vehicles that
represented the colours of the national flag and consequently of the nation (Abdi: 148). A
unique movement known as Diski Dance was also initiated in South Africa at this point of
time, that served as a creative way by which visitors would be welcomed to the country of
South Africa, and this movement was posted as and when it took place, on different parts of
social media, such as on Youtube, in order for it to be able to reach a wide audience.
Businesses houses as well as schools were encouraged to play the national anthem of the
country in the course of conducting their day to day affairs so that more and more people
would learn to sing this anthem and so that they would be well versed with it by the time the
FIFA World Cup took place (Abdi: 149).
By investing so much in a mega-sporting event such as the FIFA Football
Tournament in the year of 2010, as part of its exercise in cultural and public diplomacy, the
South African administration was successfully able to promote the passion of the country for
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international games, portraying South Africa as a nation that was capable of being the perfect
host for events of an international stature (Grix: 16). The world media broadcasted positive
stories and images about South Africa around the world and this was seen to yield a number
of positive and beneficial effects on the global community in general, something that can be
said to have boosted South African soft power to quite a considerable degree. By undertaking
the Brand South Campaign of 2010, a positive view of the nation was portrayed, with people
coming to see South Africa as a united, hospitable and welcoming nation. Consequently there
were many positive and delightful memories that people took away from the World Cup that
was conducted in South Africa by FIFA in 2010, and which refuted with success, the
pessimistic and paternalistic views that had been held about the country prior to the FIFA
World Cup of 2010 (Grix: 23).
1.1.2. Brazil 2014 FIFA World Cup
The second case study that will be examined in detail in this dissertation is the case of
Brazil hosting the FIFA World Cup in the year of 2014, an event which also gave this nation
in the Global South the scope to improve its image and reputation in the eyes of the
international community (Beacom and Rofe: 1). This mega sporting event constituted a
component of a wider strategy of public diplomacy that the government of Brazil was
undertaking in order to improve or change the international image of Brazil as had been
existing until then (Beacom and Rofe: 1). This was the only time in the history of the country
that it received the type of image promotion that extended far beyond the campaigns that are
normally conducted in this part of the world, to attract tourists, and consequently revenue.
The game of football in general and the World Cup of 1950 in particular had played a
successful role in consolidating the national image of Brazil as a football loving country. It
had firmly established the Brazilian national identity before the rest of the world, as this
being one characterized by a passion for football and a desire for the simple things in life
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(Dawson and Jackson: 1). The FIFA World Cup of 2014 however was made use of by the
Brazilian administration to increase soft power and to improve the global image or reputation
of the country (Dawson and Jackson: 1).
It needs to be remembered in this context that there are quite a few issues that are
likely to arise when it comes to hosting a mega sporting events like World Cup Football,
problems that can be difficult for a poor country in the Global South such as Brazil, to
resolve. One example of this is the prejudicial attitude that is associated with international
media coverage of mega events that are held in the countries of the Third World (Abdi: 148).
The opportunity that is associated with the hosting of a global event and a sporting event at
that, is seen to depend a lot on what the country does when it is given this chance. Brazil
viewed the scope to host the World Cup Tournament in 2014, not only as a platform by
which it could show the world what a decorative country it was, but also what an emerging
political and economic power it was turning out to be, especially in the continent of South
America. In other words, by taking on the responsibility to host the FIFA World Cup in 2014,
Brazil embraced the opportunity to improve the international image of the country, which
until then was still widely unknown and which was still quite poorly interpreted (Abdi: 365).
1.2. Research Aims and Objectives
The following are some of the main aims and objectives that are associated with this
study –
 To determine how South Africa used a mega sporting event like the FIFA World Cup
of 2010 to boost its international image and reputation, through the use of foreign
policy
 To determine how Brazil used mega sporting events along the lines of the FIFA
World Cup of 2014 to boost its international image and reputation, through the use of
foreign policy
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1.3. Research Questions
The following are the key research questions of this study
RQ 1 – How did South Africa use a mega sporting event like the FIFA World Cup of
2010, to boost its international image and reputation, through the use of foreign policy?
RQ 2 – How did Brazil use a mega sporting event along the lines of the FIFA World Cup
of 2014, to boost its international image and reputation, through the use of foreign policy?
1.4. Purpose and Outcome of the Study
The primary purpose of the study is to show how mega sporting events of the stature
of the FIFA World Cup can be used by developing countries to improve their
international image and further their international development, by providing evidence
with reference to the case of South Africa and the case of Brazil in this respect.
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2. Chapter 2 – Mega Sports Events as a Tool for
Diplomacy: A Review of Literature
This chapter will focus on how mega sports events like the Olympics and the World
Cup have been used by countries around the world as a platform for engaging in diplomatic
exercises, and which have consequently been used in turn, to boost the images of countries
and their images before the global community.
Rowe (2018) have undertaken in-depth research and analysis on the relationship that
is seen to exist between the country of Australia, the game of football and the act of
diplomacy, in what he terms as the, “Asian Age”. In the view of Rowe (2018), Australia is a
prominent settler nation in the Global South, as a consequence of which the geo-political
positioning of the country is always something that is seen to be in question. Australia, as
argued by Rowe (2018), has been an important destination for immigration by people in
Asian countries, ever since the onset of the Vietnam War, and also because of the economic
prominence that Australia acquired in the eyes of Asian countries such as China and Japan,
and later on the countries of Southeast Asia such as Indonesia, and even the country of India,
in South Asia. Sport, states Rowe (2018), has served as an important domain or area of
diplomacy for Australia especially when it comes to fostering and maintaining long term
relations with Asian nations. Australia’s geo-political position in the Asia Pacific and the
regional or continental form of governance that is in place in the Asia Pacific is something
that allows Australia to be perceived as a sporting nation, allowing it host events, mega and
minor, that attracts participation from Asian nations, a well-known example in this instance
being the AFC Cup that was conducted here in 2015. The primary argument made by Rowe
(2018), is that by conducting mega and other sporting events in Australia on a regular basis,
and by encouraging Asian nations to participate in such events in large numbers, Australia
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has successfully used sporting diplomacy to foster long standing relationships with Asian
nations.
Abdi et al. (2018), has conducted research to show how successfully it is that sport
can be used for the achievement of what may be termed as diplomatic outcomes. In the view
of Abdi et al. (2018), sport is something that forms an integral aspect of public life in today’s
day and age and it is something that is increasingly being used as a tool for diplomacy. The
research undertaken by Abdi et al. (2018) is one that is aimed at providing readers with a
model of sports diplomacy, while identifying at the same time, the critical abilities that need
to be brought into play, for soft power tools in the domain of sport to be converted into
resources that can be used to bring about diplomatic outcomes. The primary data has been
obtained by Abdi et al. (2018) by conducting as many as thirty online surveys, all of which
were undertaken by people who are considered to be experts in the international sporting
arena and who have sufficient knowledge and expertise on the subject of public diplomacy as
well. The responses that were obtained upon conducting the research were then analysed
qualitatively using a framework that is known as Fuzzy Delphi Method. In the view of Abdi
et al. (2018), the findings of the study reveal that there are two main strategies that are
associated with the act of sports diplomacy. The first of these is the maintenance of official
sports diplomacy and sports diplomacy as a form of showing solidarity while the second is
the use of figures from the world of sport, as cultural ambassadors. According to Abdi et al.
(2018), if this particular sports model is applied in the manner desired, it can be used for
achieving the desired and appropriate diplomatic outcomes in an accurate and timely manner.
Dubinsky (2019) has engaged in a detailed and discussion of what soft power entails
and how it can be brought into play in the domain of sporting diplomacy. In the view of
Dubinsky (2019), one of the most important benefits that is associated with the use of soft
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power is that it can be used to attain the desired outcomes from people or from nation states
without taking recourse to violence, aggression, and specifically, without making use of
military or paramilitary forces. It is further argued by Dubinsky (2019), that three important
sources of this soft power are foreign policy, political values and culture. Culture, in the view
of Dubinsky (2019) is something that nation states have been making use of quite extensively
as a tool for improving the image of their countries, to carry out acts of public diplomacy and
to generate messages and ideas of peace. The peaceful values, the focus on culture and the
international exposure that is associated with sporting activities makes sports a useful tool for
engaging in diplomatic affairs and procedures. Dubinsky (2019), state that this is one of the
reasons why countries around the world have traditionally always opted to make use of sports
as a tool by which they could achieve their international goals and also bring about
significant improvements when it comes to the matter of public diplomacy. The conceptual
and theoretical understandings that are associated with soft power, with the use of sport as a
tool of diplomacy and the act of public diplomacy itself have been discussed in detail in this
piece of research. The main contribution that has been made by Dubinsky (2019) by
conducting this study is to point out the various ways and means by which countries around
the world can make use of soft power in order to improve the image of their respective
countries and also achieve their foreign policy related goals at the same given time.
How sporting diplomacy constitutes the most important soft power tool utilized by
New Zealand today is a subject that has been researched upon by Jackson et al. (2016).
According to the researchers, much in the same way as Australia, the position of New
Zealand in the Asia Pacific region makes it a popular choice for the migration of people, in
large numbers, be it people from the Global South or people who hail from the Global North.
As a result, it is stated by Jackson et al. (2016), the country of New Zealand is home to
people from multiple ethnic backgrounds, people who are culturally quite diverse or different
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from one another, but who reside on the same terrain and who work towards each other’s
wellbeing in order to be able to live harmoniously in a common and well-unified
environment. It is argued by Jackson et al. (2016), that one of the key ways by which the
government of New Zealand has kept such a diverse population unified and how it has
promoted its image in world politics as a country that is in favour of racial and social
harmony is through the use of a soft power tool that is known as sporting diplomacy. Over
the years, as stated in the work of Jackson et al. (2016), the government of New Zealand has
transformed the country into an attractive destination for the hosting of sporting tournaments,
especially mega events that bring people from different countries and cultures in one place,
and who are unified by their love for sport. Thus, as argued by Jackson et al. (2016), New
Zealand is a country that can be credited with the successful use of sports diplomacy as a soft
power, stating in the bargain that this is probably the hardest soft power tool that the country
has made use of for activities pertaining to public diplomacy, until date.
Beacom and Rofe (2018) have undertaken detailed research and analysis to uncover
how the use of sporting activities is a valid tool for diplomatic affairs. Sporting diplomacy in
the truest sense of the term, is something that in the view of Beacom and Rofe (2018) needs
to be deliberated upon to understand what its ramifications are, and to understand especially,
how it serves as a successful measure or platform for the exercise of soft power. In the view
of Beacom and Rofe (2018), the love for sport in general and sporting activities in particular
is something that is seen to bring people together to common places or spaces, regardless of
the differences that such people may have with one another with respect, to race, culture,
religion and geography. People of diverse religions and cultures can be unified and brought
together in a single place or space by hosting a sporting event, because the love that prevails
for sporting activities all over the world, in each and every individual. It is further argued by
Beacom and Rofe (2018), that sport is seen to play a crucial role in unifying people, in
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helping them to overcome their differences and in positioning them to find love and harmony
and consequently, to find respect for one another in the ways that other forms of diplomacy
fail to do. As a result, in the view of Beacom and Rofe (2018), sporting events can be used
quite successfully by countries around the world, to boost their global image and to establish
long term and harmonious relationships with other countries. It is concluded by Beacom and
Rofe (2018), that sport can indeed be considered as a valid tool for the exercise of public
diplomacy and they argue that it is a legitimate platform for the exercise of soft power.
Tianwei Ren et al. (2018) have discussed in detail, the relationship that is seen to exist
between media, sport and the exercise of soft power. The research has been carried out with
reference to East Asia. In this piece of work, a specific attempt has been made by researchers
to show how China managed to program and promote its image before the rest of the world
by conducting the Beijing Olympics. In the view of Tianwei Ren et al. (2018), China
managed to successfully show the rest of the world how it is capable of being regarded as a
First World nation by virtue of the quality infrastructure that it managed to showcase at the
time of hosting the Beijing Olympics, and particularly by acting as a warm, welcoming and
generous host with all the nation countries that chose to send their Olympians to participate in
this event. As argued by Tianwei Ren et al. (2018), China has managed to successfully
engage in the use of soft power and sporting diplomacy in order to establish harmonious
relationships with other countries of the world and promote its international reputation in the
bargain, By hosting the Beijing Olympics, China was able to demonstrate before the rest of
the world, that it was committed to the notion of international unity and harmony. The role of
the media is something that is especially important in this respect, as argued by Tianwei Ren
et al. (2018). The media coverage that took place of the event, especially on television
channels such as FTV, CTV managed to display the grandeur that the Chinese government
took recourse to in order to make all the host nations or all the participating nations in the
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Beijing Olympics feel at home, proving in the process how it could successfully use sporting
events as a tool for international diplomacy.
In the view of Jackson and Dawson (2017), the hosting of mega-sporting events is
something that is widely sought by countries around the world, be it countries of the Global
North or Global South, because there is an increasing recognition of how valuable sport can
be for the pursuit of international diplomacy. According to Jackson and Dawson (2017), there
are many issues or problems that are associated with the hosting of mega sports events. To
begin with, such events are seen to have quite a negative impact on the surrounding natural
environment, labour exploitation and citizenship displacement are two other obvious
outcomes of mega sports events, and the problem of corruption is omnipresent when it comes
to the hosting of mega sporting events. However, in spite of so many problems, sport is being
recognized by countries around the world as an invaluable tool of public diplomacy, in the
neo-liberal day and age. The concept of corporate diplomacy is something that has been
brought up in this piece of work by Jackson and Dawson (2017), whereby they argue how the
focus on the hosting of international events such as the Olympics for instance is something
that has gradually progressed from the public domain to the private domain. In the view of
Jackson and Dawson (2017), corporate houses are coming to realize that states do not
constitute the only players in international relations and that private firms can also exercise
muscle power in this domain and pursue their financial interests. The way by which sports
diplomacy as well as corporate diplomacy are seen to function have been analysed by
Jackson and Dawson (2017), in great detail in the context of the Olympics with an attempt
being made on the part of the researchers to point out, how the hosting of the Olympics is a
move that is not only welcomed by the governments of different countries of the world, but
also by the large scale private firms that dominate the industry or the market in such
countries.
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Dousti et al (2019) have undertaken detailed research and analysis to see how sport
constitutes a form of soft power and diplomacy for the country of Iran. A specific attempt has
been made on the part of the researchers to show how sporting diplomacy was made use of
by the government of Iran in order to improve the country’s image in the eyes of the
international community ever since the transpiration of the nuclear deal. Both qualitative and
quantitative methods have been made use of on the part of the researchers to carry out this
study and the Fuzzy Delphi Method has been deployed to obtain information as accurate and
as precisely as possible. Additionally, exploratory factor analysis has also been deployed in
order to discuss and analyse the key research findings. The attainment of national unity and
the exercise of peace diplomacy is something that the country of Iran has engaged in through
the use of sporting diplomacy, that is, by hosting international sporting events and by sending
sportsmen from the country of Iran to other nations of the world, to take part in sporting
events. In the view of the researchers, sport is something that is extremely well accepted and
well received in a country like Iran, with the average person living in this country taking part
in sporting activities for their entertainment and pleasure quite regularly. This love for sport
is something that the government of Iran has utilized to establish harmonious and peaceful
relations with other countries of the world, especially when it comes to sports such as
football. As argued by the researchers, Iran has been open to hosting football tournaments of
an international stature in the recent past, and it has also allowed its players to participate in
international football tournaments, exercising in the bargain, a form of peace diplomacy that
acts in sharp contradiction to the aggression it showcased on the world stage when it came to
implementing the nuclear deal.
Abdi et al. (2019) have undertaken detailed research to show how sports can indeed
be used as a valid form of soft power. According to Abdi et al. (2019), it is important to
remember that while international sporting events such as the international Olympics and the
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world cup football tournaments serve as a means for governments to exercise soft power,
engage in public diplomacy and improve their international image, not all sporting events can
be perceived as mega events. In fact it is argued by Abdi et al. (2019), that there are specific
types of sports diplomacy resources that are made available to governments which they can
use as tools of soft power without having to take recourse to the hosting of mega events all of
the time, for the same. Examples in this respect include sports products, sports human capital,
sports events, both large scale as well as small scale etc. Some of the other important
resources of sports diplomacy that have been identified by Abdi et al. (2019), are authentic
sports leagues, coaches, women’s sports and the act of taking part in international, global,
continental or regional sporting events. In the view of Abdi et al. (2019), there are many
dimensions to the use of sport as a tool of soft power. In order to engage in diplomatic
exercises with the help of sport, governments of nation states do not have to only host mega
events or send players to participate in such events. Instead some of the other things that they
can do is make extensive use of sports diplomacy resources such the promotion of sports
products, and the promotion of women’s sports in particular in order to give their image
before the international community a considerable boost, and to showcase the nation that they
represent as a sports loving nation.
Jarvi et al. (2017), talk about how countries around the world are making increasing
use of sport in order to promote their national image and also to exercise influence. As argued
by Jarvi et al. (2017), sports diplomacy is something that is being seen to have quite an
increasing presence in the world today in both the theoretical and practical sense of the term.
Sports diplomacy in the view of Jarvi et al. (2017), is something that can take place within
the domain of sport while it can take place outside of the sporting arena as well. The research
that has been carried out by Jarvi et al. (2017) has been done so in the context of Scotland,
whereby a specific argument is made by the researchers as to how Scotland can learn a lesson
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from the sporting diplomacy that has been exercised by Australia over a four year period. The
researchers further argue that Scotland is not being able to grasp the many opportunities that
are being made available by the institution of sports diplomacy as a result of which it has
remained behind a number of other countries, including the country of England in this
respect. It is argued by Jarvi et al. (2017), that there is a lot that a country like Scotland has to
offer in the area of sport, and that it should not hesitate to grasp the many opportunities that
come with the exercise of sports diplomacy in order to be able to promote sports industry in
Scotland on a global level. In the process of doing so, it is argued by Jarvi et al. (2017), that
Scotland will not only be giving the rest of the world the impression that it is sports loving
nation, but it can also foster or establish long term peaceful diplomatic relationships in the
bargain.
Lee (2017) has undertaken in-depth research and analysis to show how sports and
public diplomacy are seen to go hand and hand. The study by Lee (2017) is one that has been
undertaken with reference to the FIFA World Cup that was hosted by South Korea in the year
of 2002. In the view of Lee (2017), hosting this world cup tournament is something that
significantly helped Korea in improving its image before the rest of the world. According to
Lee (2017), public diplomacy is a framework that has in the recent past captured the attention
of scholars and practitioners worldwide and something of the specific aspects or dimensions
of public diplomacy that have been identified and studied in detail are the culinary arts,
education and culture. Sport, in the view of Lee (2017) can also be added to this list, stating
that it is a powerful tool of soft power and public diplomacy as evident from the hosting of a
mega sports tournament like the FIFA World Cup in Korea and Japan in the year of 2002. As
stated by Lee (2017) this was an event that was hosted by the central Japanese and the South
Korean governments respectively and the event was seen to offer a number of social, political
and economic opportunities for the hosts. By hosting the world cup, both the countries of
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Japan and Korea gave the rest of the world the understanding that they were willing to be
international in their political scope and outlook and that foreign or international exchange
through the domain of sport is something that was of great interest for both the countries. By
doing a thoroughly successful job of hosting the FIFA World Cup in 2002, Lee (2017),
argues that Japan and Korea both managed to improve their image and reputation in the eyes
of the international community, especially the countries of the Global North, quite
considerably.
Grix et al. (2019) have also undertaken study and research on the concept of soft
power and the way by which this concept can be utilized to understand and interpret mega
sports events that are seen to take place across the globe. According to Grix et al. (2019), soft
power is a term that is being widely utilized by commercial organizations, governments and
social institutions as well as by academics or scholars, and the widespread use of this term
has contributed to the lack of clarity or ambiguity behind its actual meaning. In the view of
Grix et al. (2019), the soft power package that is made use of by states around the world is
seen to constitute five important components, namely, diplomacy, trade, branding, tourism
and culture. One of the most inevitable ways by which soft power is exercised by a nation
state, as argued by Grix et al. (2019), is by hosting mega sports events or by taking part in
mega sports events. Such sporting events provide countries of the world to send their
representatives to a common platform or stage, where they engage with one another and
collaborate with one another, and give one another an idea about their respective cultures and
identities. In the view of Grix et al. (2019), hosting a sports event and a mega sports event at
that is something that is seen to give the government of a nation state the scope to show the
rest of the world the culture and the unity that it stands for, the values that it stands for, and in
the process, it gives such nation states the scope to improve their image before the rest of the
22

world. Countries that already enjoy a good reputation on the international stage can take
advantage of mega sports events to enhance or boost this image to quite a significant extent.
2.1. Gaps in the Review of Literature
The literature that has been reviewed above has done a successful job of pointing out the
theories and concepts that form the basis of sporting activities and sporting events today such
as soft power, public diplomacy, sports culture and mega sports events. The literature has
talked about the number of ways by which countries around the world are making increasing
use of sports diplomacy in order to improve or enhance their reputation in the eyes of the
global community and how they are undertaking diplomatic ventures successfully and
effectively through the use of sports based events, a good example in this respect being the
football world cup or the Olympics. The review of literature has pointed out the many ways
by which sports diplomacy can be made use of in order to bring the nations of the world
together on a common platform. Ideals of peace and harmony and values associated with the
same, can be successfully promoted by hosting mega sports events, as evident from the FIFA
World Cup held in Korea and Japan in 2002 or the Beijing Olympics as held by China. The
review of literature does however point out specifically, how mega sports events are
diplomatic or are useful as tools of public diplomacy in truly explicit terms. An attempt will
be made to address this gap in this particular dissertation, by referring to and analysing the
diplomatic dimensions of mega sports events such as the FIFA World Cup in South Africa in
2010 and the FIFA World Cup in Brazil in 2014.
23

3. Chapter 3 – Sports Diplomacy, South Africa and the
2010 FIFA World Cup
The year of 2010 was a time when a concerted effort was made by the South African
administration to increase awareness and knowledge about South Africa, as a popular
destination for tourism and a viable location for business (Grix: 83). Brand South Africa was
aimed at attracting clientele from around the world, clients who would invest in South Africa,
who would do long term business in the country and also people who would come to visit the
country in large numbers, as travellers or tourists. The government of South Africa was keen
to enhance the image of the country quite significantly before members of the international
community and it was willing to do anything and everything that it could in order to
transform South Africa into a truly global destination. Some of the platforms that the South
African government decided to actively make use of in order to spread greater awareness and
knowledge of South Africa as a business and tourist destination were print as well online
media, a wide array of advertising campaigns, broadcast channels on radio and television etc
(Grix: 84). However, the most important platform of all was the FIFA World Cup which
South Africa offered to host in 2010. The decision taken by the government of South Africa
to host the World Cup was based out of a desire to improve the international image of the
country, to boost trade and commerce within the nation by encouraging foreign direct
investment, including tourism, and by transforming South Africa into a destination that
people would want to visit in large numbers, from around the world, be it for business or for
24

pleasure (Merkel: 56). The South African leadership was determined to make use of the FIFA
World Cup 2010 as a platform for giving the image and reputation of the country a significant
boost and in order to ensure that this venture of hosting the football world cup in 2010, turned
out to be as successful as possible, a number of initiatives as part of the Brand South Africa
Strategy and Campaign were initiated. The South African leadership was thus engaging in
active public diplomacy by using the FIFA World Cup of 2010 as an important tool for this
purpose (Merkel: 58).
That the FIFA World Cup ought to be held in a destination such as South Africa was a
prospect that was being contemplated for quite some time by FIFA, right from the time of
May 2004. This was a year when the decision was taken by FIFA to propose holding the
World Cup of 2010 in South Africa, an initiative that would make South Africa the first
African nation to ever host a world cup tournament (Dowse: 1). However, as the proposal did
its rounds, and experts were asked to provide their feedback, thoughts and suggestions about
the same, a lot of doubt and scepticism was expressed over the ability of a country like South
Africa to be able to host an event of the stature such as World Cup Football. Indeed, there
was no single person at the time who thought South Africa to be capable of hosting an
international sporting event, and a mega sports event at that (Podoler: 45). There were
numerous occasions when FIFA officials were requested to go ahead and consider some other
country as a backup location or site, should South Africa fail to live up to the expectations of
the international sporting community, by not being able to provide the type of infrastructure
and facilities that are necessary for hosting a mega sports tournament like World Cup
Football (Dowse: 10). There was particularly a lot of worry about the lack of enough
stadiums in South Africa for hosting all of the matches that normally form a part of a world
cup football tournament. The crime rates in South Africa at the time were also significantly
high and it was viewed as a destination that was potentially quite dangerous for people to
25

visit, especially for tourists or foreigners who were coming here from another country. There
was one company in South Africa at the time known as Protektor Vest that engaged in the
manufacture of numerous body armour vests, that people could wear in the country in order
to be able to keep themselves protected from physical assault or attack, with the vests bear
images of flags in a colour that would be chosen by the person who would be wearing the
vest. South Africa was a country which was at the time quite dangerous for the security and
wellbeing of outsiders, and there was thus a lot of scepticism about whether or not the FIFA
World Cup in 2010 ought to be held in South Africa at all (Podoler: 45).
There were a number of other reasons why the prospect of the FIFA World Cup of 2010
being hosted in South Africa appeared to be an unlikely possibility. Construction costs were
skyrocketing in the country at the time and the cost of labour was also seen to be at an all-
time high (Tella: 387). The world economy was not doing so well either, and it was clear
enough that hosting the world cup in a country such as South Africa at the time would prove
to be highly strenuous for the ordinary people living in the country, many of whom would
lack access to basic amenities in their homes, while also suffering from what may be termed
as flagging service delivery. There were many pressing needs that a country like South Africa
was seen to experience at the time, in the public sector, such as the rising cost of education
and the rising costs that were associated with energy production (Tella: 389). South Africa
would have to spend close to R 40 billion on the development of stadiums, transportation
links and other types of infrastructure and there was a lot of internal criticism that the South
African leadership had to face from its people, because of its decision to agree to host the
world cup in 2010 (Louw: 305). There was no building up on the momentum that had
transpired after the multi-racial elections had taken place in the country in the year of 1994,
as a result of which the GINI co-efficient in South Africa had increased considerably. Socio-
economic divides came to replace the race barriers in South Africa which in turn sparked a lot
26

of economic and political conflict in this otherwise beautiful nation. With all of these being
the major themes that dominated social, economic and political life in the country of South
Africa in the months building up to the FIFA World Cup in 2010, the introduction of Brand
South Africa is something that was introduced by the South African government at this point
of time, in order to reframe and re-portray the nation in a more positive light (Tella: 390).
Brand South Africa was launched in about a year ahead of the 2010 World Cup in South
Africa and there were four main programs that form a part of this strategy. The first strategy
was known as Football Fridays, the second was Fly the Flag for Football, the third was
known as Diski Dance while the fourth strategy came to be known as Our National Anthem
(Grix: 85). The main goal behind this strategy was to rally around the support of the locals
and to unite them in supporting the South African administration in preparing for the world
cup tournament. At the same time this was a strategy that was aimed at presenting sporting
culture in South Africa in a vibrant and positive way to the visitor who would be arriving in
the country soon in order to be able to witness the tournament (Grix: 89. The South African
administration was taking recourse to public diplomacy in the fullest sense of the term, in
order to give the world and to the arriving guests or visitors a positive and unique image
about South Africa as a nation, a nation that simply loved sports and where the people were
warm and welcoming. The South African administration was of the hope that by getting the
local people excited about the tournament a lot of the racial and other domestic issues that
were plaguing South African society at the time were those that would be covered up
completely, and this in turn would allow the foreigners who would be visiting South Africa
during the world cup tournament to enjoy the best services with respect to hospitality as well
as sporting experience (Dowse: 5). Shielding racial issues and other social issues that had
until then been all pervasive in South African society was a way by which the South African
leadership aimed to reduce the negative attention that had been levied against South Africa by
27

outsiders because of high rates of crime and lack of sufficient protection from the same. Up
until then, South Africa was being perceived by foreigners as a dangerous country to be in,
and by covering up such issues through the Brand South Africa strategy was a key way by
which the leadership of South Africa wishes to remove all negative attention and scepticism
associated with South Africa (Dowse: 10).Brand South Africa was an effective campaign in
public diplomacy as it hoped to get the local people of South Africa excited about the world
cup, it hoped to unite the people of South Africa into working hard as a collective unity in
order to create a positive impression of the country in the eyes of the rest of the world and it
hoped to transform South Africa into a place that could be perceived by foreigners as a safe
place to be in, instead of making them scared and worried about the time that they were going
to be spending here, while the FIFA World Cup of 2010 was in progress (Tella: 390). Some
of the most unique aspects associated with the football culture prevailing in South Africa
were promoted to quite a significant degree at this point of time. For instance, the vuvuzela
which is a plastic horn that has descended from an item known as the Kudu horn was made
known about, as also the makarapa which is colourful, well decorated and modified version
of a miner’s helmet (Grix: 88).
Football Fridays was one of the most important components or features of the diplomatic
campaign that came to be known as Brand South Africa. It got the businesses in the country
quite excited about the football event and every Friday, people were expected to go to work
in casual clothing, and they were encouraged to wear the type of clothes that would reflect
the colours of the South African national flag, namely, green and yellow (Bettine: 1353).
Employees from both the private sector as well as the public sector were encouraged to wear
such clothes. The second strategy which was known as Fly the Flag, was a strategy that
required the citizens of South Africa to go ahead and fly the national flag of the country from
their roof tops, outside of their homes, at the their offices and work stations or in the front of
28

their vehicles (Louw: 1). By hoisting the flag at home or at office buildings or by positioning
the flag even on vehicle mirrors, it was hoped that a sense of unity would prevail among the
South African population and they would be able to put up a harmonious and patriotic front
before the foreigners who would make their way to this destination in 2010 for the world cup
tournament (Louw: 1). Flags that were made of polyesters as well as flags in the form of car
socks were used on the vehicles in different cities and towns of South Africa as a measure of
national unity in the country prior to the World Cup of 2010 taking place (Branagan et al:
251). The nation clearly wanted to give the rest of the world the idea that it was a united
country, that was committed to the attainment of peace and harmony, that it was a country
worth visiting and exploring just like any other, and that the high rates of crime and domestic
problems that had kept foreigners from visiting the country up until then, ought not to be
perceived as a deterrent for staying away from the country, given the love and the respect that
the people of the country had to offer to each other and to the rest of the world as well
(Ogunnubi: 520).
The DISKI Dance was perhaps one of the most interesting features of the Brand South
Africa strategy. It was primarily a social media venture and it was carried out through the
Youtube Channel as also through the use of local media. Many of the people in South Africa
were encouraged to go ahead and learn this dance, which comprised a number of moves
associated with basic football practices and which would use as many as 11 of the country’s
national languages for denoting football moves such as Table Mountain, Header and Juggle,
among others (Chatine: 1). The dance was choreographed in a way that it reflected the
rhythms that are commonly associated with African football, and it was meant not only to
unite the people of the country with one another but also to serve as a way by which the
people of South Africa would be able to welcome the visitors who were making their way
here for the FIFA World Cup Tournament (Chatine: 1).
29

The national anthem of the country of South Africa is also something that was
promoted quite significantly as part of the public diplomacy that was exercised by the South
African administration to prepare the nation and its people for the FIFA World Cup in 2010.
The national anthem of the country is something that would be played quite frequently at
offices, at malls, and even at pubs and discos, at schools, colleges and other types of
educational institutions in order to familiarize the people of the country with patriotic values
and ideals. It was hoped that by playing the national anthem so frequently, the people of
South Africa would feel united, would feel as part of a collective identity instead of feeling
divided along racial and socio-economic lines, and this sense of being a part of a collective
identity, it was hoped would create the fervour that was necessary for South Africans to
present their nation with pride and joy to the foreigners arriving here for the world cup
tournament (Dowse: 2). Fly the Flag as well as the Diski Dance strategy were serviced their
very own websites through which these were actively promoted. Media kits and tool kits
were also given to business houses for the promotion of such strategies and television
advertising was also undertaken in order to ensure that Brand South Africa was reaching all
the segments of the South African population. It was hoped that by the time the international
visitors made their way to the country and were firmly entrenched on South African soil, that
this this aura of national pride and national unity and the passion for the game of football,
would reach its climax. Consequently, the impression given to the visitors or foreigners
would be that of unity and harmony, something that in turn would improve the image of
South Africa in the eyes of the rest of the world, to quite a significant degree (Grix: 85).
Brand South Africa was initiated in order to tackle the many different stereotypes that
were associated with South Africa as a nation at that time, along with the negative portrayal
of the country as depicted by the world media. The media depictions of South Africa a year
ahead of the world cup in 2010, were not too positive, and Brand South Africa aimed to
30

rectify this detrimental image of South Africa that had been showcased by international
media before the rest of the world (Ogunnubi: 521). A purposeful attempt was made as part
of the Brand South Africa initiative to rebrand and reframe the image of the country and to
show it in a positive light before the international community. Specifically, it was hoped that
by implementing the Brand South Africa initiative, tourism prospects in the country would
improve and international firms would be encouraged to come and do business in this part of
the world. Brand South Africa was one that aimed at attracting foreign investment and
foreign tourism and as such it aimed at the creation of a safe and secure environment that
would allow foreigners to visit the country in large numbers, regardless of whether they were
visiting the country for business reasons or for leisure (Ogunnubi: 521). The safe, secure and
friendly environment that the South African leadership wanted the nation to be characterized
by is something that was created through the promotion of national symbols. It was hoped
that the promotion of national symbols would draw away much of the negative attention that
had been directed against South Africa because of the high rates of crime that had been
prevailing over here up until then and also because of the rampant poverty that had been
characteristic of this part of the world. South Africa did not want to be known as a nation that
was poor, and which was not safe for foreigners to visit. South Africa did not want to be
known as a nation that could not provide basic security to its citizens, let alone foreigners.
South Africa, at this juncture of its political and social history, wanted to be known as a
football loving nation, and as a nation that was welcoming of people of all cultures, races and
religions, a country that was safe for foreigners not only to visit, but to reside in and do
business, be it for the long term or the short term (Brannagan et al: 251).
Through the large scale use of what may be termed as unity icons, the Brand South
Africa initiative succeeded in creating a welcoming and passionate host population for the
FIFA World Cup 2010, which was the largest sporting event to have been held on African
31

soil up until that point. The perception of South Africa that visitors to this country took home,
after the tournament was over, is something that started paying off its dividends almost
immediately (Grix: 85). A significant increase in the perception of foreigners of South Africa
as a nation was witnessed by Reputation International, especially among people living in the
G-8 countries, after the world cup tournament had taken place. South Africa later went onto
acquire a seat in the security council of the United Nations, and most of the well-known
international media outlets were seen to report quite positively the event planning abilities
that had been showcased by the South African administration, and the warmth as well as the
hospitality that had been extended to them by their hosts in South Africa while the
tournament was taking place (Bettine: 1353). Brand South Africa thus succeeded in tackling
a lot of the pessimistic as well as paternalistic views that had until then been espoused by the
international community regarding South Africa in the run up to a developing, Third World
nation, an African nation, holding a mega sporting event like the FIFA World Cup in 2010
(Bettine: 1353).
By investing in a mega sports event of the stature such as the FIFA World Cup of
2010, is something that enabled the South African administration to promote the passion that
South Africans have for the game of football, and to show how this country could act as a
truly welcoming host to people from the rest of the world. Such positive images and ideas
about South Africa, its culture and its people were then broadcast by the world media all
across globe which in turn led to the development of positive perceptions among the
international community of South Africa as a nation. At the very least, what Brand South
Africa managed to do, before and during the FIFA World Cup of 2010, is to boost the soft
power of South Africa, for the short term if not the long term (Abdi: 365).
32

The FIFA World Cup of 2010 and the Brand South Africa Strategy were thus seen to
serve as a turning point in the diplomatic history of the country. South Africa was
successfully able to utilize the platform that it had been offered by the opportunity to host the
world cup in 2010, to create a positive image about the nation before the rest of the world. By
fostering national unity and harmony using the Brand South Africa strategy and by getting
the people of the country to show visitors who safe and secure it was to be in South Africa,
the government was able to exercise public diplomacy and soft power to the fullest possible
degree, encouraging both tourism as well as foreign investment in the country by a significant
degree (Grix: 87). The FIFA World Cup of 2010, served as a perfect stage or platform for
South Africa as a nation to show the world that this was a country that was worth visiting for
holidays, it was worth doing business in, and that the safety and security of foreigners is
something that would always be assured of and ensured, in spite of the high crime rates and
inadequate systems of surveillance and security that the country had become notorious for, up
until then (Abdi: 147).
33

4. Chapter 4 – Sporting Diplomacy, Brazil and the
FIFA World Cup of 2014
The decision on the part of a country to host a mega sports event such as a world cup or
an Olympics tournament is a decision that is often associated with the desire for nation
branding. A nation which intends on improving its image before the international community,
which seeks to gain recognition and acceptance at the global level for what it is and what it
stands for is a nation that will embark on the risky venture of hosting a mega sports event
(Leite: 1). The term risky has been used in this context because a nation state has to invest
plenty of funds to develop the type of infrastructure that is required for hosting a mega sports
event. It is not possible to plan and organize for a mega sporting event overnight. A nation
state has to prepare a significantly high budget for this purpose, and vast allocations of money
have to be made to the concerned sectors in order to develop the infrastructure and facilities
that are needed to ensure that the event turns out to be a success. When it comes to the
hosting of a mega event such as world cup football, it goes without saying that there is a lot
of money that has to be spent on developing infrastructure such as stadiums, as also practice
pitches, and fitness centres so that the matches take off as planned, so that technical glitches
do not arise when the matches are in progress and so that players may access all the amenities
and services that they need in order to remain fit and healthy while the tournament is in
progress (Chatine: 1). Thus, the decision on the part of a nation state to host a mega sports
event can turn out to be highly risky should the state not manage to acquire all the funds that
are needed to make the event happen, and if the acquisition of funds turns out to have a
severely negative economic impact on the country later on, after the tournament is over.
Proper planning and organization in the area of finance especially is something that is
34

mandatory for mega sports event to be a success, regardless of whichever part of the world it
is taking place in (Chatine: 1).
Yet it is important to remember that when a country does take the decision of hosting a
mega sports event, it does so keeping all such risks in mind. More often than not, it is the
countries of the Third World that wish to play an active role in hosting mega sports events, as
doing so helps them to enhance their skills in soft power and use sport as a form of diplomacy
with which they can improve their image and reputation in the eyes of the rest of the world
(Penfold: 384). Countries of the Third World, notably the countries that are located in the
Global South are characterized by poverty, sickness and disease for the most part and are
considered to be safe destinations for people from the Global North to travel to, too often, for
business and entertainment. The hosting of a mega sports event in this part of the world
however, does a lot to change the perceptions that international communities are likely to
have about such nations and whatever it is that they have to offer (Penfold: 385). Third World
Nations are in dire need of foreign investment and foreign patronage in order to be able to
survive and in order to allow the people living in such countries to lead a life of dignity. The
hosting of a mega sports event is something that is seen to give the countries of the Third
World, the scope and the opportunity to earn a lot of revenue, and to create a positive image
or notion about the country in the eyes of the rest of the world, so that foreigners do come and
visit this nation later on, either as tourists or as business professionals, something that can
turn out to be good for the economic growth and development of the country and its
international standing as a whole (Penfold: 386).
The decision that was taken by a country such as Brazil to host the FIFA World Cup over
here in the year of 2014 was a decision that was based on many of the factors that have been
discussed above. Brazil is a prominent destination in South America and it is considered to be
35

developing nation (Bry: 87). Poverty is quite rampant in this part of the world as is social and
political instability, all of which have created a not so favourable impression of this nation in
the eyes of people from other countries, especially those who hail from the Global North. To
uphold law and order particularly in a country like Brazil is something that can turn out to be
huge a problem and it is not the safest destination for foreigners to visit, although a lot of this
perception has changed ever since the FIFA World Cup took place here in this part of the
world in 2014 (Bry: 90). The Brazilian administration was of the notion that by taking on the
responsibility of the FIFA World Cup, it would be able to show the rest of the world that
Brazil was indeed a desirable destination to visit, that investing in the country would prove to
be a lucrative thing for foreign businesses to do, and that there was much that Brazil could
offer the international community in the form of travel and tourism. In fact, it was fervently
hoped by the Brazilian administration that hosting the World Cup in 2014 would change the
image that people had about Brazil only being a poor country, and being a destination that
was best refrained from visiting, given the high rates of crime and poverty that prevailed over
here. Hence it was the exercise of soft power and the exercise of sporting diplomacy that a
country such as Brazil was looking to engage in by undertaking the responsibility of hosting a
mega sports event such as the FIFA World Cup over here, in 2014 (Bry: 90).
With the FIFA World Cup 2014, the image that a country like Brazil wished to
showcase before the rest of the world was an image that was characterized by positivism,
growth and harmony. This was a tournament that was going to turn out to be like no other,
and the Brazilian administration was willing to make all the efforts that were necessary to
ensure that the tournament was implemented with success in this part of the world (Abdi:
147). The Brazilian government reached out a number of corporate firms within the country
and internationally to endorse the event, a well-known example in this respect being Adidas,
a global sportswear company (Abdi: 366). The government of Brazil did not leave any stone
36

unturned in order to procure the type of funds that were needed to make the world cup event
in 2014 a huge success. Cheer leaders and volunteers were gathered by the Brazilian
administration in large numbers, the football stadiums in the different parts of the country
were revamped and a lot of sound and lights were introduced as part of the day to day
festivities during this tournament so that the people attending at the tournament would be
completely enthralled by what they were witnessing (Leite: 3). A specific attempt was made
by the government of Brazil in general and by the organizers of the event in particular to
introduce the visitors at the event to the Brazilian Samba. Samba performances were held
before and after matches on a regular basis, while the tournament was in progress, giving the
people who had arrived here from other parts of the world, a true taste and feeling of what the
culture of Brazil was all about. What the country of Brazil wished to present before the rest of
the world during the hosting of the FIFA World Cup 2014 was not only the country’s love for
the game of football but also the fact that it had the wherewithal that was needed in order to
be able to host a mega sports event such as this. There was no compromise in the area of
spending (CHatine: 5). The government of Brazil was willing to solicit and to raise all the
funds that were needed to make the tournament a huge success, regardless of the economic
difficulties and liabilities that this would pose for the country at a later date. Indeed as the
aftermath of the tournament revealed, Brazil as a nation was not economically in a position to
host a mega sports event such as a world cup, with lots of marginalized people in the country
having been displaced as a result of the tournament taking place here. Yet the Brazilian
administration was adamant to make the tournament happen, as it believed that by
undertaking the responsibility of hosting the world cup it would create a favourable image of
the nation in the eyes of the rest of world, consequently inviting the tourism and investment
that was necessary to give the economic development in the country a significant boost
(Chatine: 5).
37

When discussing the attempt or the initiative taken by the Brazilian administration to
host the world cup tournament here in 2014, it needs to be remembered that the government
did receive a lot of criticism for the risks that it took in conducting the tournament. As
mentioned above, displacement is something that was seen to have taken place on quite a
wide scale in different parts of Brazil as a result of the tournament (Pohler: 45). A lot of
homeless people living in the country of Brazil and those who dwell in the slums, had no
place to go to overnight, because of all the sudden development work that had to take place in
Brazilian cities to prepare the country ahead of the football tournament. While it is true that
Brazil as a nation was going to take all the effort that was necessary in order to make this
tournament happen, it was not financially ready for such a tournament and the cost of the
tournament on the lives of the poor and the homeless is something that turned out to be quite
disastrous (Leite: 1). People were displaced in large numbers as a result of the tournament,
and a lot of the passion and enthusiasm that was expected from the people of the country at
the time that the tournament was taking place, was not received on account of the crisis that
was occurring. Taxation is also something that was seen to have increased in Brazil quite
significantly in order to raise the funds that were necessary in order to make the tournament
happen. The large scale infrastructural development that was taking place in Brazil in the
form of stadium construction and development and the preparation of hotels and guest houses
for accommodating the host population, all took a toll on the lives of the common people of
Brazil, who were now burdened with severe taxation and who consequently lost all the love
and the enthusiasm that was expected of them, upon hosting this tournament (Leite: 4). Brazil
was to give the rest of the world the impression that it was an economic power. It wanted to
convey before the eyes of the world that this was a nation that was known not only for its
love and passion for football but that it had all of the resources that were needed in order to
make a mega sports tournament happen in this part of the world. In reality though, while
38

attempts were made on the part of the Brazilian administration to procure the funding that
was needed to host the tournament, the economic costs that the government had to incur and
the people of the country had to incur as a result of this, was far too great (Leite: 5). The
economic burden of hosting a mega event like World Cup 2014 was so severe that the
common people of the country were not able to enjoy the matches, for the most part, and
there were large scale protests that were held across the length and the breadth of the country
in order to let the government know that the stand it had taken to host the world cup
tournament here in 2014 had been a wrong decision (Leite: 6).
In spite of the economic crisis that had prevailed in Brazil as a result of hosting a
mega sports event like the World Cup in the year of 2014, the aim of the government which
had been to exercise soft power and sporting diplomacy was one that was brought to fruition.
Brazil managed to promote not only football as a game, and the passion of the people for this
game, but it also managed to give the culture of the country a significant boost by hosting this
tournament (Bry: 87). The Brazilian samba found a great platform for expression at the
various matches that were held as part of the tournament and tourists could be seen singing
and dancing to Brazilian beats while the matches would go on. People who would go to the
stadium to witness the matches, both the locals and the visitors would don themselves in the
colours of Brazil. It was clear from the way that things were unfolding that the love for the
game and the unity of the people of Brazil is something that was clearly coming across at the
time of the tournament, and this in turn proved to be good for the international image of the
country (Bry: 88). The foreigners who visit Brazil at this juncture took a lot of delight and
joy in the events that were being held, before and after the matches. They could identify quite
easily with all the song, dance and music and in the bargain they managed to form a positive
impression about the warmth of the local people in Brazil and the culture of the country
overall (Chatine: 6).
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When talking about the promotion of culture as part of the sports diplomacy that the
country engaged in by agreeing to host the World Cup 2014 tournament in Brazil, it is
important to remember that a very specific image of the Brazilian people and Brazilian
culture was what the government wanted to promote at this point of time. Adidas which had
been one of the leading sponsors of the world cup in 2014 in Brazil had released a number of
advertisements of tee shirts and tank tops that showcased bikini clad women wearing the
colours of Brazil and advertising sports-wear upon doing so (Penfold: 384). A trial version of
such advertisements was showcased before certain members of the administration and was
not approved as a result of which the advertising campaign had to be called off altogether.
This was a move that clearly gave the impression that the government of Brazil was not just
interested in portraying Brazil as a carefree nation that was passionate about football, but a
country that could be considered as economically strong and powerful, and which had a
certain image to maintain before the global community, as much as other countries of the
world did (Penfold: 385).
While it was a bold attempt that had been made by the government of Brazil in
deciding to host the 2014 World Cup Tournament over here, the end result of doing so, did
not turn out to be successful. Brazil did not succeed in bringing about a transformation in its
global reputation as a result of hosting this tournament. The infrastructural arrangements
were not considered to be up to the mark, there was a lot that the international media had to
say about the lack of proper infrastructure especially with regard to the stadiums and overall
the attitude that was adopted by the government of Brazil to the entire event as a whole, is
one that turned out to be quite relaxed and easy going. International media opined that a
country like Brazil was not serious enough to host a mega event like world cup football, and
that it did not care enough to undertake all the arrangements that were necessary to ensure
that this turned out to be a success (Bry: 89). Apart from being criticized by the international
40

media because of its inability to host the world cup tournament in the manner that was
desired, a lot of criticism was levied against the Brazilian government by the local media as
well. Clearly, this event was an exercise in sporting diplomacy and soft power that the people
of the country were not happy about, given that so many thousands of people were displaced
as a result of the event. The government did not take adequate measures to address the causes
and the concerns of the homeless and decided to go through with the event at any cost. The
fact that the government of Brazil had to spend an exorbitant amount of money on
infrastructure is also something that did not go down well with the people of the nation, given
the fact that they were overburdened with taxes as a result of this (Bettine: 1356). Brazil took
a bold decision to carry out sports diplomacy and it agreed to host the FIFA World Cup of
2014 here, to show the rest of the world that this was a country that was worth visiting, worth
investing in and that there was a lot more that Brazil had to offer the world apart from Samba.
In the end though, it was the love for the game of football that allowed Brazilian
administration to see the tournament to its end, and the efforts that it took to show the world
that it was an economic power in South America is something that turned out to be a
miserable failure (Bettine: 1360). Clearly, the country did not have the financial resources or
power and the infrastructure that was needed to conduct a mega sports event like world cup
football, and the fact that it did so keeping all the risks in mind, is also not something that
could be condoned given that it had compromised the wellbeing of its people in the process
(Leite: 4).
Soft power has by and large dominated the rhetoric of hosting mega events and the
decision taken on the part of the Brazilian administration to host the 2014 world cup over
here is no exception in this respect. Yet taking a short cut for the sake of sports diplomacy
and taking a short cut to improve the image of the nation and to rebrand the way that people
see the nation, is not a good idea (Chatine: 5). In the case of Brazil, the fact that it chose to do
41

so led the government to face a lot of opposition, discontentment and civil unrest. Wide scale
protests were held in different parts of the country because of the inability of the government
here to successfully come up with all the arrangements in terms of infrastructure that was
needed to host a sporting event like world cup football. Undoubtedly, the intentions of the
government had been quite sound. It wanted to promote the image of Brazil as a superpower
in the South American region, a country which was not only characterized by a passion for
football but which had the infrastructure and the economic resources that were needed in
order to host an event like the world cup (Bettine: 1358). By hosting the tournament, the
government of Brazil wanted the world to look at the country differently. It wanted global
tourism to increase in Brazil and it wanted Brazil to be perceived as a possible destination for
large scale foreign direct investment. Hence the decision to host the FIFA World Cup
tournament here in 2014 was certainly an act that was rooted in sporting diplomacy, a desire
to rebrand the image of the country and make it be seen as an economic force to contend
with, in the South American region (Penfold: 90). Yet, as the discussions above have clearly
showed, Brazil in the larger scheme of things, was not a country that was prepared to host a
mega sports event, let alone an event along the lines of world cup football. It was casual and
lax about arrangements and infrastructure pertaining to the world cup tournament causing the
IOC to consider such arrangements as being the worst ever (Penfold: 90). The international
community was not impressed with what the country had to offer by virtue of it hosting the
world cup tournament and while the visitors to the country did enjoy themselves to the
matches by dancing to traditional Brazilian music, donning the Brazilian national colours and
outfits and by witnessing the Samba and other cultural events that took place before and after
the matches, the sordid state of affairs that the common people of the country happened to
find themselves in because of poor planning, finances, lack of infrastructure, taxation and the
burden of displacement, all left the visitors here with quite a bad taste in the mouth (Bry: 91).
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The world cup event in 2014 as held in Brazil was accompanied by protests taking
place in each and every part of the world. The infrastructure was not up to the mark, planning
was not underway in the manner desired and overall, it was clear that this was not a nation
which was ready to host a mega event, at least in the financial sense of the term (Bry: 89).
Thus, Brazil’s attempt to host the FIFA World Cup 2014 was a soft power exercise and a
sports diplomacy exercise that appeared not to be successful, with the nation embarrassing
itself before the rest of the world instead of creating the positive and stable image that it had
so desired to establish by hosting the event (Bettine: 1357). Far from seeing it as an economic
superpower in the region of South America, the international community came to criticize the
country quite vehemently for not take enough care with the arrangements for the tournament
and for turning its back on the commoners, many of whom were displaced in large numbers
owing to the event (Leite: 6).
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5. Chapter 5 – Conclusion
FIFA as an organisation though a non-state entity has over time inserted itself into the
fabric of international diplomacy. The reason for this is that over time, the FIFA World Cup
has become a beacon of success of the country, and an event which symbolises the strength
of a country financially. The reasoning for this is that the amount of tourism, international
awareness, and economic changes it brings to a country are enormous. South Africa and
Brazil are examples of how the FIFA World Cup intertwined with their social, economic, and
foreign policy. For South Africa having hosted such a spectacle allowed for it to be
highlighted internationally, boosted tourism, and heavily added to the infrastructure, and
culturally it allowed the world a glimpse within South Africa through football. For Brazil the
FIFA World Cup gained it much attention, and was declared a success, and emphasised on
Brazils natural beauty, so by hosting the FIFA World Cup, Brazil gained much in regards to
its foreign policy goals also. At the time that the World Cup took place, there were protests in
Brazil, and a very negative image was being created worldwide, but by hosting the World
Cup in 2014 Brazil, was able to soften the image, and turn the negative news positive.
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Appendix
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