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Running head: CHILD TRAFFICKING Comparative study between India and United Kingdom on Child Trafficking Name of the student: Name of the university: Author note
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1CHILD TRAFFICKING Table of Contents Comparative study on child trafficking in India and United Kingdom.....................................3 1. Overview................................................................................................................................3 2. Literature Review:..................................................................................................................3 2.1. Immensity of child trafficking:........................................................................................6 2.2. Human Rights and child trafficking:...............................................................................7 2.3. Comparative study of legal regulation in India and UK:................................................8 (i) Child trafficking in India:.................................................................................................8 (ii) Child trafficking in England:............................................................................................9 2.5. Weakness and gaps in the trafficking regulations:........................................................10 2.6. International efforts on child trafficking:......................................................................11 2.7. Effective strategies:.......................................................................................................12 3. Research methodology:........................................................................................................12 3.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................12 3.2. Research philosophy:.....................................................................................................12 3.3. Scope of the research:....................................................................................................13 3.4 Research approach..........................................................................................................13 3.5 Research process............................................................................................................13 4. Discussion............................................................................................................................14 5. Comparative study:..............................................................................................................18 Conclusion:..............................................................................................................................19
3CHILD TRAFFICKING Comparative study on child trafficking in India and United Kingdom 1. Overview Child trafficking is a part of human trafficking and considered as one of the most heinous crimes in the modern world. The term denotes the process of transportation, recruitment and harbouring of children for certain illicit purposes1. The statistic report of childtraffickingsubmittedbytheInternationalLabourOrganisationhasrevealedthe importance of the problem and impacts of it on the socio-economic condition of a country. It has been mentioned by the institution that the rate of child trafficking is about 1.2 million every year2. Aims and Objectiveof the paper To investigate the overview of child trafficking in United Kingdom and India To identify the shortcoming of the countries towards dealing with the issue of child trafficking To compare the Legal approach taken by the countries towards dealing with the issue of child trafficking To recommend better ways towards tackling the issue of child trafficking. 2. Literature Review: Introduction The problem regarding child labour has affected both the countries of India and United Kingdom.M. S. Hoque (2010)states that the tragedy regarding the transportation of 1Rafferty, Yvonne. "Child trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation: A review of promising prevention policies and programs."American Journal of Orthopsychiatry83.4 (2013): 559-575. 2Rafferty, Yvonne. "Child trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation: A review of promising prevention policies and programs."American Journal of Orthopsychiatry83.4 (2013): 559-575.
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4CHILD TRAFFICKING the women and the children in the brothels is becoming a menace in case of the Asian countries like Bangladesh and India3. On the other hand,Bales (2004)stated that most of the victims are economically exploited in UK and forced to involve in the flesh trade4. According toPennington (2008),the slaves are not only intending to do the household work, but are being used as a sex slave; coerce labour or debt bondage also5. Considering the gravity of the matter, many international institutions have implemented several policies6. In case of India and UK, two different objectives and pattern can be observed. In United Kingdom, child trafficking has been codified in later stage, but the process of legislature and applications are quite liberal. Most of the trafficked children are served as a labour in United Kingdom whereas in India, most of the children are used as a sexual object and transported to the brothels7.Jean D Cunha (1998)had critically examined the scope of prostitution and sex trafficking in the various parts of the Asian countries.Selina Verma stated that the main problem regarding trafficking is that the government has failed to take necessary agenda and make a sustainable development. There are certain legal parlances also which includes the efforts of the government of different countries and the international institutions to address the social phenomenon8. It has been stated byTodres (2016),that a 3Hoque, M. S. (2010). Female Child Trafficking from Bangladesh: A New Form of Slavery. In: Canadian Social Science Vol .6.1: 45-58. 4Bales, K. (2004) New Slavery: a Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 5Penington, Julia and others ed. (2008). The Cross National Market in Human Beings. In: Journal of Macromarketing 29.2: 119-134. 6Harvey, Jackie H., Rob A. Hornsby, and Zeibeda Sattar. "Disjointed service: an English case study of multi- agency provision in tackling child trafficking."British journal of criminology55.3 (2015): 494-513. 7Cho, Seo‐Young, Axel Dreher, and Eric Neumayer. "Determinants of Anti‐Trafficking Policies: Evidence from a New Index."The Scandinavian Journal of Economics116.2 (2014): 429-454. 8Harvey, Jackie H., Rob A. Hornsby, and Zeibeda Sattar. "Disjointed service: an English case study of multi- agency provision in tackling child trafficking."British journal of criminology55.3 (2015): 494-513.
5CHILD TRAFFICKING strong legal framework has to be put in place regarding child trafficking in order to ensure eradication of such evil from the society9. 2.1. Immensity of child trafficking: The modus operandi towards the issue of child trafficking is depending on each country’s point of view and feasibility10. In India the extent of child trafficking is much more as compared to that of England.Wadhwahad explained the activities in Nepal-India border and the transportation of Nepalese girls in various brothels of India. It has been observed that the transported children are from poor families and entrapped by the traffickers11. However, in India, most of the child victims are being used for sexual purpose and tendency regarding the prostitution service has been observed12.Kevin White (2017)has noticed a similar scenario regarding the process of child trafficking in India and the South Asian countries13. Source: Crime in India, National Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs. 9Todres, Jonathan. "Can Mandatory Reporting Laws Help Child Survivors of Human Trafficking?." (2016). 10Khan, Asif. "Child trafficking in India: A staid predicament."International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences4.5 (2015): 185-201. 11Sarkar,Siddhartha."RethinkinghumantraffickinginIndia:Nature,extentandidentificationof survivors."The Round Table103.5 (2014): 483-495. 12Malik,Amit."CasteOppression,GenderDiscrimination,PovertyLinkagetoHumanTraffickingin India."Asian Resonance3.3 (2014): 265-70. 13O’Brien, Jennifer E., Kevin White, and Cynthia Fraga Rizo. "Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking Among Child Welfare–InvolvedYouth:AnExploratoryStudyofCorrelates."Childmaltreatment(2017): 1077559517709995.
6CHILD TRAFFICKING In United Kingdom,the children are trafficked generally for labour purpose. An initiative has been taken by theJoint Committee on Human Rights of UKto draw a framework regarding the prevention and detection of the traffickers and to understand the scope and source of child trafficking.Child trafficking has become an issue in UK as per the statement ofBrayley14.Hamad Alaleelihas pointed out that UK has made significant efforts to curb the social phenomenon.Anna Guptastated that children are transported to UK against their will and they are used as a cheap source of labour in various fields. 2.2. Human Rights and child trafficking: The negative influence of child trafficking should be analysed from the comparative perspective and critical analysis is required in this case15.DWCD and UNICEF have pointed out the risk factors to define the source and effect of child trafficking.Deborah Fryhadcategorisedtheriskfactorsaslackofpersonalsafety,emotionaldistress, homelessness, poverty, family dispute, mental illness, sexual abuse and lack of social support16. However,Margaret Malloch17had explained the risk factors from the criminal perspective and evaluated the statutory responses to abolish the risk factors.Sanghera (1999) had concentrated on the weak points of the child trafficking system and made a research on the liability and veracity of the risk factors18. 14Brayley, Helen, and Ella Cockbain. "British children can be trafficked too: Towards an inclusive definition of internal child sex trafficking."Child abuse review23.3 (2014): 171-184. 15Choi-Fitzpatrick,Austin."Thegood,thebad,theugly:Humanrightsviolatorsincomparative perspective."Journal of Human Trafficking2.1 (2016): 1-14. 16Muraya, Dorothy Neriah, and Deborah Fry. "Aftercare services for child victims of sex trafficking: A systematic review of policy and practice."Trauma, Violence, & Abuse17.2 (2016): 204-220. 17Malloch, Margaret.Human Trafficking. Edinburgh University Press, 2016. 18Kempadoo, Kamala, Jyoti Sanghera, and Bandana Pattanaik.Trafficking and prostitution reconsidered: New perspectives on migration, sex work, and human rights. Routledge, 2015.
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7CHILD TRAFFICKING 2.3. Comparative study of legal regulation in India and UK: In relation with these objective, it can be observed that both the countries have adopted certain policies over child trafficking issues as the nature of the crime in these countries are growing in nature. However, certain differences can be observed in case of each country. (i) Child trafficking in India: Child trafficking in India is become epidemic in nature19.Indian Constitutionhas mentioned about the ill motive of child trafficking20. Apart from the Constitution, there are certain other legislations likeImmoral Trafficking Act, Prevention of Child from Sexual Offence, Child Labour Act and Juvenile Justice Act. There are certain provisions stated under theIndian Penal Coderegarding the immoral selling of minor for the purpose of prostitution (section 366 (A) and section 372). An amendment has been made on criminal law in 2013 that inserted two sections (section 370 and section 370A IPC) to curb the menace of child trafficking.Steen et al. (2015)was of the view that increasing incidences of child trafficking in the brothels impedes HIV control21.However, the penalty provisions stated in these Acts are easier in nature and the offender get easy release from jail. Additionally, major portion of those Acts are dealing with prostitution and not amend provisions for other consequences of child trafficking such as servitude, forced labour etc. 19Cannon, Abby C., et al. "Trafficking and health: a systematic review of research methods."Trauma, Violence, & Abuse(2016): 1524838016650187. 20Swendeman, Dallas, et al. "“Whatever I have, I have made by coming into this profession”: The intersection of resources, agency, and achievements in pathways to sex work in Kolkata, India."Archives of sexual behavior44.4 (2015): 1011-1023. 21Steen, Richard, et al. "Trafficking, sex work, and HIV: efforts to resolve conflicts."The Lancet385.9963 (2015): 94-96.
8CHILD TRAFFICKING Source: TIP Report 2015 (ii) Child trafficking in England: In England, codified laws applied are liberal in nature and the government has taken certain effective steps to curb this social ill22. The Sexual Offences Act 2003 was enacted to deal with all kinds of trafficking. In addition to this, there are certain other legislations named CriminalJustice(Scotland)Act2003andAsylumandImmigrationAct2004.The government of United Kingdom has also organised a team to rescue the children called Pentameter II and the process of rescue is known as National Referral Mechanism23. The UK government has taken a multidimensional attitude to establishing the rights of the child and make amendment to strengthen the Modern Slavery Act 201524.The provisions of this Act not only deal with prostitution, but the other necessary problems also and strengthen the provision of penalties for the offenders. 2.5. Weakness and gaps in the trafficking regulations: The main theme of this objective is to point out the loopholes and gaps present within the trafficking regulation of both the countries25. India’s aspect: 22Steen, Richard, et al. "Trafficking, sex work, and HIV: efforts to resolve conflicts."The Lancet385.9963 (2015): 94-96. 23Greene, Alan. "The UK Government’s Proposed ‘Presumption to Derogate’from the ECHR: Submission to the Joint Committee on Human Rights." (2017). 24Invernizzi, Antonella.The human rights of children: From visions to implementation. Routledge, 2016. 25Cyrus, Norbert, and Dita Vogel. "Demand Arguments in Debates on Trafficking in Human Beings: Using an historical and economic approach to achieve conceptual clarification."DEMAND-AT Working Paper1 (2015).
9CHILD TRAFFICKING It has been observed that there is much legislation implemented in India on child trafficking. However, from the National Crime Reports, it can be seen that the rate of trafficking has not been reduced rather it has been increased and the rate of kidnapping and abduction have been increased26. Unlike England, the implementation process of India is rigid and legislative process is quite slow. The offenders get easy release from the custody. Poor educational standard is one of the main reasons. Indian government has failed to take necessary steps to track the offenders and the border areas. However, the provisions of certain Acts likePrevention of Child from Sexual OffenceandChild Labour Act and Juvenile Justice Acthave succeeded to prohibit the offence to certain extent and it has been observed from the national crime report 2017 that many child traffickers have to face serious penalties and imprisonment under Indian Penal Code. UK’s aspect: The government of United Kingdom has taken many effective steps regarding the child trafficking. However, UK has failed to develop a standard legislation in case to stop child trafficking. Lack of surveillance in the affected areas and the workplaces has been observed and the government has failed to take proper steps on that. 2.6. International efforts on child trafficking: The third objective of this assignment is to consider the views of international institutions regarding the subject. United Nation has taken certain steps over this matter27. The minimum age regarding labour processes are determined by theInternational Labour Organisationsthrough theMinimum Age Convention 1973.The rate of child trafficking is 26'National Crime Records Bureau' (Ncrb.nic.in, 2017) <http://ncrb.nic.in/> accessed 24 December 2017. 27Akee, Randall, et al. "Transnational trafficking, law enforcement, and victim protection: A middleman trafficker’s perspective."The Journal of Law and Economics57.2 (2014): 349-386.
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10CHILD TRAFFICKING observed in migration cases and the International Labour Organisation has implemented the revised convention on migrant workers in 194928.U.N. Convention on Rights of the child 1989, International Labour Organisation (Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention) 1999 and U.N. Protocol to prevent, suppress and punish Trafficking in person 2000 have also taken effective steps regarding the matter. 2.7. Effective strategies: In relation to the fourth objective, an effective strategy is required to deal with the topic and eradicate trafficking from the society. The government of both the countries would need to take proper surveillance in the affected areas and the brothels. More agencies should have to be appointed with an intention to help the victim and investigate the matters from its core. Proper provisions are not enough to reduce the rate. The process of punishment should be well-designed29. 3. Research methodology: 3.1 Introduction A systematic approach regarding the problem on child trafficking could not be constituted by the literature review only. It needs to follow certain methodology for making the topic materialistic and responses regarding the issue at the national and international level30. The topic includes certain ethical perspectives and focuses on the different views of the scholars and researchers. 28Davidson, Julia O’Connell. "Telling tales: Child migration and child trafficking."migration3 (2013): 4. 29Cho, Seo‐Young, Axel Dreher, and Eric Neumayer. "Determinants of Anti‐Trafficking Policies: Evidence from a New Index."The Scandinavian Journal of Economics116.2 (2014): 429-454. 30Della Giusta, Marina.Demanding sex: critical reflections on the regulation of prostitution. Routledge, 2016.
11CHILD TRAFFICKING 3.2. Research philosophy: The main pillar of the research processes is research philosophy. It works as a guidance to achieve the objective of the study. There are three types of philosophies that are used. These are positivism, interpretive and realism. This report is based on the interpretive philosophy. 3.3. Scope of the research: It has been observed that there are certain loopholes in the implementation process of the anti-trafficking regulation in both the countries and until those are not avoided; the menace regarding trafficking could not be stopped. Proper planning is necessary in this regard. Strict steps are required to adopt in this case. The literature review will help the researcher to identify all the short comings related to the topic. 3.4 Research approach The nature of the research should be based on data collection and processing. In case to collect the data on the topic, qualitative approach should be made. The method of data collection should be based on the three pillars such as case file review, victims and experts. However, the data are being collected from certain web portals and various journals and books. Certain direct statements of the scholars are also being discussed here and the legal parlances of each of the state have helped to narrate the comparison in between India and UK on child trafficking. The website of UNICEF regarding child trafficking, legal database of India and UK on child trafficking has been followed31. 31Muraya, Dorothy Neriah, and Deborah Fry. "Aftercare services for child victims of sex trafficking: A systematic review of policy and practice."Trauma, Violence, & Abuse17.2 (2016): 204-220.
12CHILD TRAFFICKING 3.5 Research process The researcher has explained the issue by applyingqualitative data analysis process. The descriptive concept can be termed as archival research32.Smith (2015)has explained certain research approaches and divided the same as deductive and inductive approach. According to him, approaches are helpful to develop the strategies and assist the researcher to make relevant decision and conclude the matter in a more accepting way. 4. Discussion Childtraffickingisaninternationalissue.Itisadirectthreattothe establishment of human rights33. Many international institutions are interfering into this matter and certain protocols and conventions had conducted to regulate the issue in a systematic way34. ThePalermo protocolis considered as the first major international initiative regarding the child trafficking and Article 3(a) of the protocol made the practice of child trafficking illegal35. The traffickers are targeting the families resided in the remote areas and collect the child from there. The children are transported to various places and forced to engage in illegal works like domestic servitude, child labour, criminal activities and flesh trade36. Scholars likeJean D Chunhahad concentrated on the sexual exploitation of the trafficked child. 32Farley, Melissa, et al. "The prostitution and trafficking of American Indian/Alaska Native women in Minnesota."American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research (Online)23.1 (2016): 65. 33Quenivet, Noelle, and Aurel Sari. "Submission to the Joint Committee on human rights on UK government’s policy on use of drones for targeted killings." (2015). 34Boyden, Jo, and Neil Howard. "Why does child trafficking policy need to be reformed? The moral economy of children's movement in Benin and Ethiopia."Children's Geographies11.3 (2013): 354-368. 35Bvirindi, Tawanda Ray, and Nigel Mxolisi Landa. "Exploring Policy Issues on the Trafficking of Women in Southern Africa with Reference to Zimbabwe."Africanus: Journal of Development Studies46.2 (2017): 73-87. 36Stoklosa, Hanni, et al. "Health care providers’ experience with a protocol for the identification, treatment, and referral of human-trafficking victims."Journal of Human Trafficking3.3 (2017): 182-192.
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13CHILD TRAFFICKING In India, most of the trafficked children are being used as sex trade and the primarylegislationregardingthetopicisbeinggovernedbytheImmoralTraffic (Prevention) Act 1956. Child trafficking has been prohibited under the Indian Constitution (Article 23)37. Legislation has been implemented to detect the offence and punish the traffickers38. Certain sections have been inserted in the Criminal Act in the year 2013 to curb the social disease. The problem regarding the child trafficking has been mainly originated in the border area and North Eastern regions are the prone area as many children are trafficked from Nepal and transferred to the various red light areas of India39. The case ofAsha Tamang v State of West Bengal 2011 CALHCis a good ground on it. InBachpan Bachao Andolan v Union of India 2011, it has been observed that Article 21A of the Constitution is dealing with the basic right of the children and any violence regarding the same should be dealt with strong hand. Many NGOs are raising their voice regarding the topic and children welfare committees have been established in thisregard. It washeld inPrerana v State of Maharashtrathat the trafficked children, after being rescued, should be produced before the welfare committees. In 2012, Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act has been implemented to protect the children from sexual harassment40. Ontheotherhand,before2005,therewerenouniformlegislations implemented in UK. All the matters were being dealt with on ad hoc basis41. The government 37Ansari, P. A. "Rights of Children in India: Problem and Prospects."International Journal of Innovative Research and Development5.6 (2016). 3827Pascual-Leone, Antonio, Jean Kim, and Orrin-Porter Morrison. "Working with Victims of Human Trafficking."Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy47.1 (2017): 51-59. 39Greenbaum, Jordan, James E. Crawford-Jakubiak, and Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect. "Child sex trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation: health care needs of victims."Pediatrics135.3 (2015): 566-574. 40Hans, V. "Child Labor and Livelihood Security in India: A Situation Analysis." (2017). 41Harvey, Jackie H., Rob A. Hornsby, and Zeibeda Sattar. "Disjointed service: an English case study of multi- agency provision in tackling child trafficking."British journal of criminology55.3 (2015): 494-513.
14CHILD TRAFFICKING of UK has started to follow the rules of the international convention in the year 2006 and implemented the rules for the provinces of UK in the year 2009. However, a laxity regarding the protection of the human rights can be seen in the anti-trafficking framework in UK42. The anti-child trafficking laws in UK have three faces: prevention, investigation and protection. In UK, many agencies are dealing with the issue such as the National Criminal Intelligence Service, National Criminal Squad, Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre43. It has been observed that the provisions made to fight against the child trafficking matter are not mandatory in nature and therefore, the issue has grown gradually in the provinces of UK44. InR v Connors 2013,the family members of a child were found guilty to force their child towards labour. InPO (Nigeria) and Secretary of State for the Home Department [2011] EWCA Civ 132, a Nigerian child was trafficked and transported to the brothel. The international approaches on child trafficking have, to certain extent, able to make the problem universal. In 2009, the United Nations has made certain approaches regarding the international framework for trafficking persons45. The framework is based on three pillars such as prevent the crime of trafficking, protect the victims and punish the traffickers. However, according toBurke (2015),the attempts made by United Nations are wide in nature and able to resolve the punishment proceedings. On the other hand,Davidson 42Rigby,Paul,andPhilipIshola."5ChildProtectionforChildTraffickingVictims."Human Trafficking(2016): 84. 43Oram,Siân,etal."Humantraffickingandhealth:asurveyofmaleandfemalesurvivorsin England."American Journal of Public Health (ajph)(2016). 44Rafferty, Yvonne. "Child trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation: A review of promising prevention policies and programs."American Journal of Orthopsychiatry83.4 (2013): 559-575. 45Farrell, Amy, Rebecca Pfeffer, and Katherine Bright. "Police perceptions of human trafficking."Journal of Crime and Justice38.3 (2015): 315-333.
15CHILD TRAFFICKING (2013)was of the view that the policies taken by United Nations are not mandatory, many member states have not followed the rules, and the problem regarding trafficking remains same. Trafficking of child has been held illegal under theArticle 39 of Convention of Rights of Child 1989but the problem is still present.Government has to keep an eye in the border area and facilities should be provided to the remote villagers46. Strong steps must be taken against the traffickers who transported the child to brothels47. 5. Comparative study: A comparative analysis has been made to point out the current situation of the countries and policies of the government to reduce the scope of the heinous crime48. It has been observed that both the countries have implemented a number of legislations. However, to certain extent, both the countries have failed to develop the standard of life of the victims. India has been concerned about the topic since 1957 and has amended the provision of the Criminal Act as and when required. ManyinternationalpoliciescouldnotbeimposedmandatorilyinIndia, whereas in UK, international policies play an important role. Standard of care has been given to the victims of UK, nevertheless in India; the government has taken no possible care for the safety of the victims. The applicability regarding child trafficking issues and legal provisions are not stringent due to the legislative complexity in India. The long procedural terms of India become a weak point regarding the proper implementation of the child trafficking provisions. 46Domoney,Jill,etal"Mentalhealthserviceresponsestohumantrafficking:aqualitativestudyof professionals’ experiences of providing care."BMC psychiatry15.1 (2015): 289. 47LeBaron, Genevieve, and Andreas Rühmkorf. "Steering CSR through home state regulation: A comparison of the impact of the UK bribery act and modern slavery act on global supply chain governance."Global Policy8.S3 (2017): 15-28. 48Harvey, Jackie H., Rob A. Hornsby, and Zeibeda Sattar. "Disjointed service: an English case study of multi- agency provision in tackling child trafficking."British journal of criminology55.3 (2015): 494-513.
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16CHILD TRAFFICKING Conclusion: It can be stated therefore that problem regarding the child trafficking is one of the greatest problem in case of India and UK. However, the policies taken by the UK are more liberal than that of India. It has been observed that the government of both the countries has taken certain effective policies to curb child trafficking. However, from the comparison part, it has been noticed that the policies taken in India are suffering from certain loopholes and procedural complexities created restriction regarding the implementation of the policies. The process of the dualist regime also makes India to lag behind regarding the effective policy application. In UK, certain advantages have been given to the victim and the government regarding the proper implementation of the related policies has taken an initiative.Further,theinternationalpoliciesonhumanrightshaveassistUKtotake appropriate action regarding the issues. Recommendation 1.Both the countries follow a framework which works upon three Ps (prevention, protection and prosecution), however a fourth P has to be included in the framework which is that of partnership. 2.Perpetrators have to be cracked down effectively by both the companies which endure a huge setback due to the lack of partnership. The relationship between the actors of criminaljusticehastobefedintoinstitutionalizedframeworksothatlasting corporation can be ensured towards the view of investigation and prosecution of traffickers in an effective manner. 3.The relationship between civil society organizations and state authorities has to be institutionalized which means that it has to be regulated and guided clearly. The
17CHILD TRAFFICKING relationship must be based upon promoting a human rights and victim centred approach towards dealing with child trafficking. 4.There must be emphasis put upon raising large scale awareness along with the modern training of law enforcement agencies with special reference to the front line staff. 5.One of the cores of daily law enforcement business should be responding to child trafficking 6.Safe and practical means of collecting anonymous data from public has to be formulated so that assistance towards trafficking investigation can be assisted. 7.The state policies should include human rights and ensure daily implementation of return, recovery, reintegration and identification practices. 8.Accessible asylum has to be provided by the host countries along with visa options to those who are victims of trafficking and who are not able to go back home 9.A long term process has to be committed by stakeholders who are involved in reintegration in relation to monitoring victim reintegration and ongoing assessments 10.
18CHILD TRAFFICKING Reference: Akee, Randall, et al. "Transnational trafficking, law enforcement, and victim protection: A middleman trafficker’s perspective."The Journal of Law and Economics57.2 (2014): 349- 386. Ali, S. and others ed. (2001). Movement against Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation, Bangladesh National Women Lawyers Association /BNWLA), Dhaka. Ansari, P. A. "Rights of Children in India: Problem and Prospects."International Journal of Innovative Research and Development5.6 (2016). Bales, K. (2004) New Slavery: a Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Bales,K.(2005).UnderstandingGlobalSlavery:AReader.Berkeley:Universityof California Press. Boyden, Jo, and Neil Howard. "Why does child trafficking policy need to be reformed? The moral economy of children's movement in Benin and Ethiopia."Children's Geographies11.3 (2013): 354-368. Brayley, Helen, and Ella Cockbain. "British children can be trafficked too: Towards an inclusive definition of internal child sex trafficking."Child abuse review23.3 (2014): 171- 184. Brayley, Helen, and Ella Cockbain. "British children can be trafficked too: Towards an inclusive definition of internal child sex trafficking."Child abuse review23.3 (2014): 171- 184.
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19CHILD TRAFFICKING Brayley, Helen, and Ella Cockbain. "British children can be trafficked too: Towards an inclusive definition of internal child sex trafficking."Child abuse review23.3 (2014): 171- 184. Burke, Florrie. "Human Trafficking." (2015). Bvirindi,TawandaRay,andNigelMxolisiLanda."ExploringPolicyIssuesonthe Trafficking of Women in Southern Africa with Reference to Zimbabwe."Africanus: Journal of Development Studies46.2 (2017): 73-87. Cannon,AbbyC.,etal."Traffickingandhealth:asystematicreviewofresearch methods."Trauma, Violence, & Abuse(2016): 1524838016650187. Cho, Seo‐Young, Axel Dreher, and Eric Neumayer. "Determinants of Anti‐Trafficking Policies: Evidence from a New Index."The Scandinavian Journal of Economics116.2 (2014): 429-454. Cho, Seo‐Young, Axel Dreher, and Eric Neumayer. "Determinants of Anti‐Trafficking Policies: Evidence from a New Index."The Scandinavian Journal of Economics116.2 (2014): 429-454. Cho, Seo-Young, Axel Dreher, and Eric Neumayer. "Does legalized prostitution increase human trafficking?."World Development41 (2013): 67-82. Choi-Fitzpatrick,Austin."Thegood,thebad,theugly:Humanrightsviolatorsin comparative perspective."Journal of Human Trafficking2.1 (2016): 1-14. Cyrus, Norbert, and Dita Vogel. "Demand Arguments in Debates on Trafficking in Human Beings:Usinganhistoricalandeconomicapproachtoachieveconceptual clarification."DEMAND-AT Working Paper1 (2015).
20CHILD TRAFFICKING Davidson, Julia O’Connell. "Telling tales: Child migration and child trafficking."migration3 (2013): 4. Deb, Sibnath. "Legislation concerning reporting of child sexual abuse and child trafficking in India: A closer look."Mandatory reporting laws and the identification of severe child abuse and neglect. Springer Netherlands, 2015. 541-564. Deb, Sibnath. "Legislation concerning reporting of child sexual abuse and child trafficking in India: A closer look."Mandatory reporting laws and the identification of severe child abuse and neglect. Springer Netherlands, 2015. 541-564. Della Giusta, Marina.Demanding sex: critical reflections on the regulation of prostitution. Routledge, 2016. Domoney, Jill, et al. "Mental health service responses to human trafficking: a qualitative study of professionals’ experiences of providing care."BMC psychiatry15.1 (2015): 289. Farley, Melissa, et al. "The prostitution and trafficking of American Indian/Alaska Native womeninMinnesota."AmericanIndianandAlaskaNativeMentalHealthResearch (Online)23.1 (2016): 65. Farrell,Amy,RebeccaPfeffer,andKatherineBright."Policeperceptionsofhuman trafficking."Journal of Crime and Justice38.3 (2015): 315-333. Greenbaum, Jordan, James E. Crawford-Jakubiak, and Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect. "Child sex trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation: health care needs of victims."Pediatrics135.3 (2015): 566-574. Greene, Alan. "The UK Government’s Proposed ‘Presumption to Derogate’from the ECHR: Submission to the Joint Committee on Human Rights." (2017).
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