Cognition in Action: Short Answer Style Essay

This essay covers the cohort model of speech perception, Marr's computational model of object recognition, heuristics, episodic and procedural memories, and dual process/systems models of logical reasoning arguments. It explains the concepts in a concise and easy-to-understand manner.

COGNITION IN ACTION
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Short answer style essay
1. The Cohort model of speech perception.
Answer: The cohort model of speech recognition was proposed by Marslen and Tyler in 1980.
The model suggests that the identification of word begins with initial activation of a set of
participants which matches with the start of a spoken word. Activated participants are rejected
because irreconcilable speech segments are heard to a content that word recognition occurs when
the information provided in speech indicators uniquely complement the one word i.e. uniqueness
point.
In simple words, cohort model is states that a hearing, visual or reading input to the brain
stimulates the neurons when it enters the brain, not at the end of the word. This process goes on
until instant which is called as a recognition point (Peelle, 2019). At this point, only one word
resides activated and all the competitors are thrown out. It means, when people hear a section
which differs from all the words spoken, then they can decide that the speech does not match
with a real word. So the response of the decisions occurs with a regular delay when they are
measured from positions in which participants analyse that words spoken is not the familiar word
to them.
The model involve three stages. The access stage starts with first speech section which
reaches hearer's ear in which the brain vocabulary activates every potential word which begins
with that statement and in recognition stage target word is identified and in integration stage
activated words are incorporated into a remarkable representation.
2. Marrs 1982 computational model of object recognition and Biedermans 1987 recognition
by components' theory.
Answer: Marr's computational model of object recognition (1982) theory, describes that what is
the goal of computation (which includes the problem needed to be handled or solved), why it is
inappropriate and what is the logic for carrying it out in a particular way. According to the
Biederman's Recognition By Components' theory (1987), people are able to recognize objects
through separating them into geons i.e. main elements of an object (Peelen and Downing, 2017).
Biederman described how 3D images are identified. Then it breaks objects down into geons
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(Important elements of an object). Objects are then identified through geons and relationship
existing between them.
According to Marr, vision is an information processing task which can be described on
three levels i.e. computational level, specific algorithms and physical representation. These three
levels correspond basically to define the problem and identifies how it can be solved. In the
second level a detail process of simulation is designed and in the last stage work system to carry
out is built. However, Biederman suggested that images can be recognized through separating
them into different geons such as basic dimensional shapes like cylinder and cones (Griffin, and
Motta-Mena 2019). He suggested that these objects can be assembled into a range of
arrangements to create a virtually unlimited number of objects. Here the subjects are able to
show an exceptional ability to identify objects even when the visual noise is present. However, it
fails to distinguish between real objectives.
3. Heuristics and their use when making a judgement.
Answer: Heuristics refers to the strategies or the processes which humans, animals, machines
and organizations use to immediately form perception, find solutions or to make decisions. Even
though heuristics are used to find solutions and make decisions according to them, but they
might not be accurate every time (Pillay and Qu, 2018). There are 4 types of heuristics i.e.
availability, representativeness, affect and anchoring which are used by persons as per their
needs.
Availability heuristic is used to make judgement which are based upon the ease of
bringing something to mind. In this heuristic, when judgement is to made, people quickly
remember various relevant examples or events. Some of those events might be recent which
means they are readily available in the memory. So the judgment will be based upon those
judgements as they are more common or are frequently occurring. These heuristic is considered
as a mental shortcut which is used for making probability and frequency judgements which are
based upon ease with the incidents or occurrences brought to mind (Sukestiyarno, and Waluya,
2019).
For example: A person is thinking of going somewhere through airlines. But they
suddenly remember a number of airline accidents, which makes them form a judgement that
travelling through airlines is quite dangerous. So they decide to travel through bus or car in the
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last. Because the events are recent, person starts thinking that the plan crashes are more common
than the other travel options. Thus, the availability heuristic leads the person to chose other
transportation options.
4. Difference between episodic and procedural memories long term memory stores.
Answer: Episodic memory refers the ability of individuals to recall and re-experience specific
episodes mentally from their pasts. Whereas, procedural memory is a part of the long term-
memory which is supervisory for knowing when to do things. Procedural memory generally
stores information such as how to perform certain processes like talking, walking or cooking.
However, episodic memory stores specific events, experiences or situations such as first day of
school, graduation party or a birthday party (Hainmueller and Bartos, 2020).
Episodic memories provide an individual a sense to remember and recall their personal
history as well as their shared history with other people. Procedural memories are unconscious
memory which are automatically stores and recalled without huge efforts. Procedural memories
are important as they are facilities language development which allows an individual to
communicate without thinking of proper grammar and errors. Episodic memories are important
because they allow a person to recall past events or personal experiences which are important for
a person in their life. Episodic memories are easy to explain as it include a memorable
experience of oneself. However, procedural memories are very difficult to explain even though
they are used in performing every day's life (Rångtell and et.al., 2017).
Examples of episodic memories are a recent trip to Disneyland, first day at job, death of a
loved one or old phone number of their-self. Examples of procedural memoires can writing with
a pen, typing on a keyboard, walking, playing a game or swimming.
5. Impact of a student's late arrival to a lecture on the attention of other students in the
lecture theatre using reference to exogenously controlled attention and endogenously
controlled attention.
Answer: Exogenously controlled attention refers to the stimulus driven attention of an individual
which is driven by external events of the environment. Endogenously attention refers to the goal
driven attention of individual which is driven by internal events (Hommel and et.al., 2019).
Decisions and confidences are likely to occur to partially separate brain processes which are
influenced differently by endogenous attention. Endogenous mechanisms are to-down factors
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which relate to an individual's internal intentions and objectives. Exogenous mechanisms on the
other side, are related to top to down effects which are related to external stimulus
characteristics. They are associated with stimulus driven control which takes place automatically,
Whereas endogenous factors are related to voluntarily control.
A student comes late to the lecture theatre. The attention of other students will shift from
reading to sudden noise. Here exogenously mechanism and endogenously mechanisms will have
different characteristics. Exogenously attentions are will draw automatic attention and will have
rapid transient time period. It means that they have different degrees of powers, so the student
who came late to class becomes impossible to be ignored by other students (Failing and
Theeuwes, 2018). On the other hand endogenous attention is automatic who have a slow and
effortful time course. So in endogenous mechanism, other students will determine by themselves
if they are able to ignore the student who came late to the class automatically or not.
6. Dual Process /Systems Models of logical reasoning arguments.
Answer: Dual process model of logical reasoning states that there are two types of thinking i.e.
associative and true reasoning. A present theory states that there are two other cognitive
frameworks lying under reasoning and thinking which are distinct systems developed through
evolutions (De Neys, 2017). In the dual processes System-1 and System-2 work together. It
enables an analyst to think slow and fast both at the same time when they are reasoning through
an individual's presentation. Associative knowledge is attained from the past experiences only.
Evan J, has argues that the theory has adapted itself from the old logistic paradigm to the
new theories which can apply to all types of reasoning as well. Now the theory is more
influential than the past which is questionable. According to Evan, all the dual process theories
are necessarily the same. System-1 processes are responsible for cognitive biasness whereas
system-2 processes are responsible just for normatively right responses (Ball, Thompson and
Stupple, 2018). As per author there are just 2 systems which lye under System-1 and System-2
processes in dual process theory.
Another argument was made by Osman that dichotomy of System-1 and System-2 does not help
the variety of processes attained in Dual process theory. Osman presented that there should be
four potential types of processing and not just two. Which include heuristic processing, implicit
based processing, explicit heuristic and explicit rule based processing in dual processes.
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While there are some researches who have proposed a single system framework that incorporates
a continuity between explicit processes and implicit processes.
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REFERENCES
Books and journals:
Ball, L.J., Thompson, V.A. and Stupple, E.J., 2018. Conflict and dual process theory: The case
of belief bias.
De Neys, W. ed., 2017. Dual process theory 2.0. Routledge.
Failing, M. and Theeuwes, J., 2018. Selection history: How reward modulates selectivity of
visual attention. Psychonomic bulletin & review. 25(2). pp.514-538.
Griffin, J.W. and Motta-Mena, N.V., 2019. Face and object recognition. Encyclopedia of
evolutionary psychological science. Springer, Cham.
Hainmueller, T. and Bartos, M., 2020. Dentate gyrus circuits for encoding, retrieval and
discrimination of episodic memories. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 21(3). pp.153-168.
Hommel, B. and et.al., 2019. No one knows what attention is. Attention, Perception, &
Psychophysics. 81(7). pp.2288-2303.
Peelen, M.V. and Downing, P.E., 2017. Category selectivity in human visual cortex: Beyond
visual object recognition. Neuropsychologia. 105. pp.177-183.
Peelle, J.E., 2019. The neural basis for auditory and audiovisual speech perception. In The
Routledge Handbook of Phonetics.(pp. 193-216). Routledge.
Pillay, N. and Qu, R., 2018. Hyper-heuristics: Theory and applications. Springer International
Publishing.
Rångtell, F.H. and et.al., 2017. Learning performance is linked to procedural memory
consolidation across both sleep and wakefulness. Scientific reports. 7(1). pp.1-8.
Sukestiyarno, Y.L. and Waluya, S.B., 2019, October. The analysis of heuristics decision-making
in abstract algebra proofing. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series. (Vol. 1321, No. 2,
p. 022059). IOP Publishing.
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