Comparing Ancient Egyptian Women to Ancient Greek Women

There is a lot of discussion today about how feminism evolved in the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, especially regarding women's suffrage. A main characteristic of feminism is the belief in the equality of women in all aspects of the society, including cultural, economic, and political. First wave feminism focuses on voters' rights and property rights; second wave feminism emphasizes equal rights; and third wave feminism emphasizes masculinity, femininity, sexuality, beauty, and female identity.

Comparing Ancient Egyptian Women to Ancient Greek Women
Introduction
Discussions about women’s right are common in the modern world. Today, most
discussions focus on the evolution of feminism in the 19th, 20th and 21st Centuries with regards
to the emphasis on women’s suffrage. Notably, feminism occurs as a belief in the cultural,
economic and political equality of women in the society. Feminism is split into three main
waves: first feminism wave, focusing on voting and property rights; the second wave, focusing
on anti-discrimination and equality; and the third wave, focusing on masculinity, femininity,
sexuality, beauty, and womanhood. Feminists express their commitment to eradicating the
conventional patriarchal societal system that regards men as superior to their women
counterparts in society. Feminists strive to transform the conventional power structures to ensure
equality of all people irrespective of their races and genders. Feminists believe that the power
structure transformation would enable all people in the society to enjoy free and dignified life,
equal values and opportunities, and unrestricted participation in community processes. However,
archeology and ancient literature indicate that women empowerment movements emerged in the
ancient human civilizations like ancient Egyptian and Greek civilizations. Specifically, women
empowerment programs achieved great success in the ancient Egyptian and Greek civilizations
by increasing women’s influence in the fields of politics, property ownership, legal processes,
culture and religion, and occupations. The significance of women empowerment movement in
the ancient civilizations will be explored by comparing the experiences of ancient Egyptian
women and ancient Greek women in their respective societies.
Position in the Society

Historical inscriptions and art indicate that women in ancient Egyptian civilization
enjoyed almost the same economic and legal rights as men. Gender equality in the ancient
Egyptian civilizations is associated with the theoretical purpose of Egyptian kingship at that
time. Arguably, pharaoh (ancient Egyptian king) existed as a personification of the ancient
Egyptian empire hence shaping perception regarding the relationship between men and women
in the society. The pharaoh symbolized the corporate identity of the Egyptian society, which
means that gender relationship was viewed from the royal center perspective (Graves-Brown).
The argument implies that gender relationships in ancient Egyptian society differed from the
familiar perspectives in most modern societies. Considering that all people in ancient Egyptian
society shared a common relationship with the pharaoh, then men and women had equal rights.
The argument also shows that men and women had the same right to the throne. Cleopatra VII
(69 BC – 30 BC) ruled Egypt as a pharaoh in the Ptolemaic Period. Although she was a
descendant of key Ptolemaic decision-makers, she focused on uniting the local Egyptian
population. Other ancient Egyptian women that served as pharaohs include Nefertiti (1370 BC -
1330 BC) and Hatshepsut (1507 BC – 1458 BC).
Social dignity in ancient Egypt was determined by an individual’s social status but not
gender. The social classes also significantly influenced legal processes in the ancient Egyptian
empire as opposed to other societies of the time. Although gender equality was accepted in
society, social classes created disparities in the inhabitants’ rights and privileges (Herodotus).
Therefore, women were seen as a part of the stratified Egyptian society based on social classes.
Unlike other societies of the time, ancient Egyptian women enjoyed a high degree of freedom
and opportunities. Gender equality allowed ancient Egyptian women to hold influential and
crucial positions in the kingdom. Women in the ancient Egyptian empire had the rights to obtains

legal contracts like jobs, property, marriage, and separation. A Greek historian called Herodotus
(484 BC – 425 BC) observed that ancient Egyptian women experienced exceptional equality and
fairness in society compared to other ancient societies like Greece and Roman societies.
Herodotus also observed that ancient Egyptian women did not experience “oriental exclusion.
The ancient Greek society, on the other hand, was based on a patriarchal societal system.
Ancient Greek men dominated their female counterparts in the society in the fields of religion,
politics, law, education and commerce (Mann). Ancient Greek paintings, sculptures, and
literature associated the male dominance over women in the society to the religion. Although
ancient Greeks worshipped male and female deities, they assigned supreme ones a masculine
identity. Greeks believed that the goddess of wisdom named Athena originated from a superior
male god. The religion hence portrayed women as inferior to their male counterparts in society.
Additionally, women were expected to perform domestic chores and display submission to their
husbands. Men, on the other hand, were supposed to assume the role of providers and protectors
for their female counterparts. Furthermore, some societies in ancient Greece emphasized the
separation of women from the larger society to boost their productivity in domestic chores. In
Athens, women were expected to live in gynaeceum or gynaikonitis, which were women’s
quarters designed to facilitate monitoring of domestic activities while maintaining minimal
contact with men.
However, not all ancient Greek women were socially excluded. Archeologists have
discovered vases depicting intellectual ancient Greek women, which vases dated between 460
BC and 420 BC. Ancient Greek women from high social classes received benefits like freedom
of interaction with other members of society and education. Women from high social classes
enjoyed some mobility and participated in religious activities alongside men. The rights were

unavailable for lower social class ancient Greek women, including prostitutes, financially
unstable, and slaves. The ancient Greek society hence did not exclude women from religious and
cultural affairs. The pursuit of formal education in ancient Greek society was viewed as an
empowerment strategy. Ancient Greek women’s power and privilege increased with the increase
in the contact between ancient Egypt and ancient Greece. In 332 BC, for instance, a Greek ruler
named Alexander the Great (356 BC - 323 BC) conquered ancient Egypt hence creating an
opportunity for the coexistence of Greeks and Egyptians. Alexander adored the ancient
Egyptians’ social and legal traditions, thus focused on its preservation. Alexander even borrowed
the Egyptians’ legal framework in handling the issues of gender disparity in ancient Greek
society.
Legal Rights
Property Rights
The rights of ancient Egyptian women extended to all the legally defined parts of society.
Legal documents of the ancient Egyptian kingdom indicate that women had legal rights to
purchase, manage, and sell private property. Properties covered by these legal documents are
money, livestock, servants, slaves, and goods. In most cases, women acquired properties through
inheritance from parents or gifts from their husbands. According to the ancient Egyptian property
law, women in the society had claim to a third to family properties, which included wealth
accumulated by her husband during the period of their marriage (Khalil). Notably, women were
allowed to maintain ownership of the properties they brought into the marriage. Women
normally purchased properties using savings accumulated from formal employments. Husbands
were expected to return properties that were legally claimed by their wives after the completion
of a divorce settlement. Women also inherited a third of their husband’s total wealth after their

demise, whereby children and husband’s siblings received the remaining two-thirds. Information
obtained from a papyrus indicates that a woman could bequeath her inheritance to her children,
sisters and brothers in cases where her husband’s or parent’s will did not stipulate otherwise.
Similarly, Ancient Greek women also enjoyed the rights for property ownership. In
Sparta, for example, women were allowed to own private properties. Unlike Athenian women,
Spartans were allowed to participate in economic activities freely and wear revealing clothes.
The evidence suggests that rights for property ownership differed based on the regions within the
larger ancient Greece. Unlike the ancient Egyptian women, ancient Greek women received
criticisms for their rights from men (MacLachlan). A Greek philosopher named Aristotle (385
BC - 323 BC), for example, associated Sparta’s problems to the freedom of its female
inhabitants. Although Aristotle is a famous philosopher, his remarks depict him as a chauvinist
with huge opposition to women empowerment. At that time, the empowerment of Spartan
women was lower than that of women in other ancient kingdoms like Egypt. Gender disparity in
Sparta in the property ownership laws was still high at that time.
Women in Contracts
The ancient Egyptian women were engaged in different forms of contracts, including
marriage and self-enslavement. Unlike other ancient societies, ancient Egyptian women had a
right of choosing their spouses. The marriage contracts stressed on fairness between spouses by
emphasizing on gender equality. Women were also allowed to divorce their husbands once the
marriage was unsatisfactory. Ptolemaic archives offer comprehensive details regarding divorce
procedure in ancient Egypt and wealth sharing. Women were also prohibited from moving into
another marital relationship before completing her divorce proceedings (Herodotus). Women
were also allowed to venture into an employment contract based on their rights for gaining

wealth independently. Wealth accumulation process among women also included a popular
strategy of the time name self-enslavement. Self-enslavement involved participation in activities
that generated monetary benefits. Women participated in formal employment to ensure the
financial stability of their families.
Religion
The ancient Egyptian paintings and sculptures of supreme beings show that their religion
embraced gender equality. The paintings, sculptures, and engravings equally represent women
and men in ancient Egyptian society. For example, the remaining parts of the engravings,
paintings and temples depict powerful feminine deities in the ancient Egyptian society. The
works of art prove that ancient Egyptian women were not treated as inferior to men by their
religion. The key example of powerful feminine deities in the ancient Egyptian society are
Hathor (goddess of recuperation and reverence), Maat (goddess of energy and power), and Isis.
Isis is depicted in papyrus as a goddess that had control over specific societal affairs such as the
men-women relationship. Ancient Egyptians also believed that the goddess Bastet protected
women and enhanced their welfare. Goddess Bastet symbolized admiration and respect of
women in Ancient Egyptian society.
Women in Judiciary
Ancient Egyptian women were allowed to bring disputes to an open court system. The
court system of the ancient Egyptian kingdoms recognized the equality of men and women. The
absence of bias in these courts allowed women to get justice. The fairness of the ancient
Egyptian court system is evidenced by the documented count proceedings featuring female
complainants. For instance, the Mes inscription details an actual land dispute case with a female

complainant. The inscription shows that the complainant had the capacity for managing her
property hence deserved inheritance for the said property. According to the inscription, the
woman won the case based on the fairness of the court and support from female witnesses. In
the 3rd Century BC, ancient Egypt adopted the Hermopolis Law Code that enabled women to
share land inheritance with their male relatives. According to this law, properties of the deceased
were divided equally among their children, including females.
Ancient Greek women also enjoyed similar legal protection in the legislative and judicial
systems. Women in Greek society enjoyed legal protection in property ownership issues. For
example, ancient Greek women had the right to inherit their father’s property. Women were
permitted to share the inheritance with their male siblings after the demise of their parents.
Furthermore, legally married women were also included in the property inheritance by the state
laws. The inclusion of legally married women in property inheritance is evident in the ancient
Athenian inheritance laws. The Athenian inheritance law sought to protect heiresses’ rights
based on the agenda of preserving family lines (Lefkowitz, Mary, and Fant). Also important in
the legal protection for ancient Greek women was the citizenship laws. The citizenship laws
prohibited exclusion or discrimination of women in society. The citizenship status of ancient
Greek women was protected by the Periclean citizenship law that was enacted in 451 BC. The
citizenship rights offered them benefits, including education, property ownership, and
participation in cultural processes. The allowed women to participate in important cultural events
like funerals.
Education and Occupations
Ancient Egyptian women were allowed to get a formal education to boost their literacy
levels. Although ancient Egyptian women had a lower literacy level than men, the state law did

not limit their pursuit of fir literacy. However, literacy acquisition in women differed in terms of
their social status in Egyptian society. For instance, women in the upper social class had a higher
literacy level than their colleagues in the lower social class. Most women from the upper social
class are normally described in the literature materials of the time. Cleopatra VII and Maria of
Alexandria are among the documented female elites of ancient Egyptian society. Cleopatra VII is
known for her linguistic skills and support for research in the library of Alexandria. The library
of Alexandria enabled researchers to increase knowledge in the field of mathematics, astronomy,
and science. Maria of Alexandria (344 CE – 421 CE) is also a popular mathematician and
chemist of the Egyptian Coptic Period. Maria collaborated with male scientists, astronomers and
mathematicians in the research activities. She developed important technological devices,
including hydrometer and water purification equipment.
Although a higher percentage of the ancient Egyptian women focused on domestic roles,
their participation in formal employment was supported by the government. Women
concentrated on domestic responsibilities to satisfy their desire for being good mothers, but not
because of a biased legal status. Women were allowed to participate in art and music, science,
medicine, and mathematics. Women played a significant role in ancient Egyptian professional
entertainment. Some of the entertainment performances of women are depicted through paintings
located in temples and tombs. Women also served as hairdressers, priestess, musicians, dancers,
weavers, and writers. Ancient Egyptian women also accomplished great success in the field of
medicine. Popular female physicians in ancient Egypt include Peseshet (lived in 2700s BC) and
Merit-Ptah (lived in 2700s BC). Women succeeded in science, mathematics, and art because of
the support from the Egyptian government. Education existed as one of their rights within the
ancient Egyptian society. Women joined the formal education system at the age of four years,

whereby they received teachings on conversational hieratic, hieroglyphics, geometry, and
science. Egyptian women were also allowed to study in mixed-sex schools of the time.
Particularly, ancient Greek women received a smaller number of chances for acquiring
formal education and participation in professional occupations than their ancient Egyptian
colleagues. Unlike their ancient Egyptian colleagues, ancient Greek women majorly performed
domestic chores because of the pressure from the strong patriarchal system. Women were
majorly expected to perform domestic duties and raise children for their male colleagues in the
society. The main role of women in the ancient Greek society is documented in plays composed
by Euripides (484 BC - 407 BC) including “Helen” and “The Trojan Women”. Women
performed roles, including fetching water, cleaning, cooking, serving, weaving, and spinning
(Euripides). Women also served as prostitutes, entertainers, courtesans, and conversationalists.
However, women also participated in professional activities like painting, writing, astronomy,
sculpting, and teaching. Famous female Greek painters of the ancient times include Helena (400s
BC), Lalla (300s BC), Timarete (800 BC). Cresilla (400 BC) and Kora (600 BC) are important
female sculptors in ancient Greece. Aglaonice (400 BC) and Agnodice (500 BC) served as
astronomer and gynecologist, respectively, in ancient Greece. Ancient Greek women who served
as poets include Megalostrata (600 BC), Nossis (200 BC), Manto (800 BC) and Sappho (600
BC). The rise of Greek mathematics and science in the 600 BC attracted female scholars. The
women’s enrolment rate in the mathematics and science disciplines rose at the rate of 50 percent
per century after 600 BC. However, women in ancient Greece started learning and practicing
medicine following the success of a female Greek physician called Agnodice (lived in 300 BC).

Conclusion
The study confirms that women empowerment programs were successful in the ancient
Greek and Egyptian society. Women in the ancient Egyptian and Greek civilizations enjoyed
rights for formal employment, cultural and religious practice, legal representation, and property
ownership. However, ancient Egyptian women enjoyed more rights than their ancient Greek
colleagues. Ancient Egyptian women enjoyed equal economic and legal rights to their male
colleagues of equal social class. Generally, the individuals’ social position in the ancient
Egyptian society was determined by social rank but not gender. Relating the role of men and
women in the Egyptian society also prevented the emergence of gender-based discrimination.
Gender equality allowed women to hold important political positions, possess properties, acquire
literacy skills, and venture in professional occupations. Ancient Greek women, on the other
hand, had to endure strong patriarchal pressure in their society. Patriarchal in ancient Greece
hindered women’s participation in science, art, and economic activities. Although ancient Greek
women enjoyed rights for property ownership, education, and formal jobs, they were not valued
and respected like their ancient Egyptian colleagues.

Works Cited
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Euripides.
The Trojan Women. 415 BCE. http://classics.mit.edu/Euripides/troj_women.html
Herodotus. An Account of Egypt. Voyages and Travels. 1961.
Herodotus. The Histories. Newburyport: Open Road Media, 2020.
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MacLachlan, Bonnie. Women in Ancient Greece: A Sourcebook. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2012.
Mann, Michael. The sources of social power: volume 1, a history of power from the beginning to
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