Computer System Architecture: A Comprehensive Guide

This comprehensive guide delves into the fundamental principles of computer system architecture, exploring the organization and interaction of key subsystems. From the central processing unit (CPU) and its intricate operation to the diverse range of operating systems and their unique features, this report provides a detailed analysis of the components that make up a modern computer system. It also examines the relationship between hardware and network addresses, including MAC and IP addresses, and their role in network connectivity. Furthermore, the report explores common technical issues encountered in hardware, software, and networking, offering practical troubleshooting methods and documentation techniques. Finally, it outlines essential maintenance activities for ensuring optimal computer performance and longevity.

COMPUTER SYSTEM
ARCHITECTURE

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction......................................................................................................................................1
Lo1...................................................................................................................................................2
P1 Identify the main subsystems of a computer and explain how they are organized and
connected.....................................................................................................................................2
P2 Explain the purpose of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and include details on its
operation......................................................................................................................................6
Lo2...................................................................................................................................................8
P3 Describe a range of different operating systems including the purpose, use and hardware
requirements of each....................................................................................................................8
P4 Discuss the key features associated with the architecture of an operating system...............13
Lo3.................................................................................................................................................15
P5 Explain the relationships between hardware and network addresses including their use with
regards to networking devices and components........................................................................15
P6 Setup, configure and document appropriate hardware and software systems to establish
computer based network connectivity.......................................................................................19
Lo4.................................................................................................................................................20
P7 Use information gathering methods to assess troubleshoot and document solutions to a
number of different technical hardware, software and networking issues................................20
P8 Conduct and document a range of maintenance activities with regards to computer
hardware and software...............................................................................................................22
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................31
References......................................................................................................................................32

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Type of register and it functions........................................................................................6
Table 2: types of buses....................................................................................................................7
Table 3: Feature and requirement of different OS.........................................................................11
Table 4: Comparison between MAC and IP address.....................................................................17

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Von Neumann Architecture.............................................................................................2
Figure 2: Memory Hierarchy of a computer system........................................................................3
Figure 3: Memories in computer system.........................................................................................4
Figure 4: Desktop of computer system having Ubuntu OS.............................................................9
Figure 5: Windows 10...................................................................................................................10
Figure 6: Screensort of MAC OS X..............................................................................................11
Figure 7: MAC address of a system..............................................................................................16
Figure 8: IP address in command prompt......................................................................................17
Figure 9: Start menu having the File explorer...............................................................................22
Figure 10: Open the Local Disk (C :)............................................................................................23
Figure 11: Optimizing the computer’s drive.................................................................................23
Figure 12: The drive is selected for Optimization.........................................................................24
Figure 13: Percentage of fragmentation........................................................................................24
Figure 14: Initializing the Defragmentation process.....................................................................25
Figure 15: Cleaning the browser’s history.....................................................................................26
Figure 16: Control panel is clicked................................................................................................27
Figure 17: System and security option is clicked..........................................................................28
Figure 18: Backup and Restore......................................................................................................28
Figure 19: Back up Storing............................................................................................................29

Introduction
Computer architecture is referred to the rules or the methods that are used for explaining,
function, implementation and organization of a computer system. Through the Computer
architecture various user commands are executed and accomplished. In this report, various
computer subsystems are illustrated. The report will be discussing about process or the Central
Processing Unit along with its operation. Presently, there are different types of operating system
for different user or system. The report will discuss about the OS along with its requirement and
features. In this report about relation and comparison between MAC and IP addresses will also
be provided. Lastly the report will discuss about maintenance task which a user need to
performed for maintaining proper functionality of computer system and also its components.
1

Lo1
P1 Identify the main subsystems of a computer and explain how they are organized and
connected
Von Neumann architecture: In the year 1945 Von Neumann came up with computer
architecture. This model is used presently to serve as a base of the modern computer. In this
model o computer design it consist of a CPU that has a control unit, arithmetic/logic unit and
memory unit, along with input and output devices (Amdahl, 2013.).
Figure 1: Von Neumann Architecture
This architecture of the computer system is designed on the basis of stored-program concept of
computer, in this same memory is used for storing both program data and instruction data (Peter
et al 2016).
Main elements of Von Neumann Architecture:
Memory unit:
2

This is referred to the collection of different storage devices together. The Memory unit
effectively stores all the binary information in form of bits. Broadly the Memory of a computer
system is classified into two different types: Volatile and No-Volatile memory. In case of
Volatile memory, the stored data get lost in case of discontinuity of power supply. While in case
of, Non-Volatile Memory data are stored permanently, even is the power supply get interrupted
data storage is not damaged.
Memory Hierarchy
Figure 2: Memory Hierarchy of a computer system
(Source: http://abhaycopi.blogspot.com/2014/04/memory-hierarchy.html, 2018)
With the help of memory hierarchy, the total memory present in a computer system can be
visualized. Memory system of a computer contains every storage devices including Main
Memory, Cache memory and Auxiliary Memory (Kolodner, 2014).
3

Figure 3: Memories in computer system
Main Memory: This memory unit mostly communicates directly with that of I/O processor, CPU,
Auxiliary memory. Main memory is the central storage unit of a computer system. This type of
memory has large capacity and is very fast. Main memory of a system is basically used for data
storage during various operations. Main memory is sub divided further into RAM and ROM.
Auxiliary Memory: This memory in the computers system is used for offering storage backup. For
example: Magnetic drums, Magnetic tapes and disks, optical disks. Only Input/output devices can
access it effectively and this memory is not accessible by CPU (Åström, and Wittenmark, 2013).
Cache Memory: Those data which are present in the main memory and are repeated used by the
CPU is stored in cache memory. This helps in easy data access.
Hardware devices:
Computer system is classified broadly as hardware and software components. Hardware are the
physical components like keyboard, monitor, circuit, printer, disk drives and chips etc. every
hardware element configured along with a computer system performs specific functions.
Hardware is again subdivided as per their functions, such output, Input, control devices,
processing and even storage devices.
Input devices: devices like keyboard, scanner, joystick, mouse is referred as input devices. These
devices are used for data insertion into the computer for further processing.
4

Output devices: Monitor, Printer comes under the category of output devices, these elements
takes the processed data from the CPU and make them available for user or other systems.
Processing device: Data are processed according to the instruction given.
Control devices: They are used for coordinating various activities within the computer system.
Storage devices: Main purpose of these devices is for keeping and storing various data that can
be used later (Organick, 2014).
The primary hardware works along with software system so that it can perform various
computing activities such as organizing information, calculations and even for connecting other
computer systems. With the help of various software components all the hardware components
are controlled and activated.
The computer software is referred to the set of instructions or programs that are written in
different programming languages such as JAVA, C++, and Python. This instruction governs the
operations of the computer. Software is further classified as application software and system
software (Card, 2017).
Relationship between various hardware and software components:
All the hardware and software component of a computer system are independent. Both the
components work together so that suitable output can be yield. Hardware devices are useless in
case the software is not supportive and vice versa. If instruction is not appropriate the hardware
fails to perform its activities accurately. The hardware is configured along with proper software
package for a particular job. Software is referred to an interface that is created between the user
and the hardware components.
5

P2 Explain the purpose of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and include details on its operation
CPU is brain of a computer system, performs every function related to processing with a
computing device. CPU receives the input data that are fetch by a user, executes them according
to the instruction provided, processes and sent back the processed data to the output devices for
the user. Processor has the main function to controlling flow of data from one device to another.
For establishing communication between the I/O devices microchip is used that is present in the
motherboard of the CPU. The main purpose of a CPU in a computer system is to carry
out various program instructions. And every processor is designed mostly for executing
particular instruction set (Comer, 2017).
Components of CPU
Registers: These are the area in the CPU that is for high speed storage. Before processing, all
the data should be stored in a register.
Table 1: Type of register and it functions
Type of register Function
Memory Address Register
(MAR)
Memory location of the data must be accessed
Current Instruction Register
(CIR)
It has the current instruction while processing
Program Counter (PC) It consist of address for the next instruction
Accumulator (Acc) It stores the result of intermediate arithmetic and logic
Memory Data Register
(MDR)
MDR stores data which is to be transferred from or to the
from memory
Arithmetic and Logic Unit: ALU supports and allows all the arithmetic and logical operations.
Control Unit: This unit is used for controlling the computer’s operation. Control unit provides
control and timing signals that computer components required.
Buses: Buses are used for transmission of data from one computer part to another. It connects all
the major internal components of the computer to CPU and the memory unit.
6

CPU system comprised of a control bus, data bus and address bus.
Table 2: types of buses
Types of buses Function
Control Bus This bus carries control commands or signals from CPU for
controlling and coordinating the order of all activities within a
computer system
Address Bus They are meant for carrying data addresses between memory and the
processor
Data Bus It carries data between memory unit, processor, and input/output
devices
Memory Unit: The memory unit consists of RAM and it sometimes is also referred as main
memory or primary memory. This memory is very fast and can be directly accessible by CPU.
RAM has different partitions (Dautenhahn et al 2015). And every partition has address and
contents. Addresses are uniquely identifying every location in the memory.
Function of CPU
For meeting the main purpose of a CPU, the process performs series of function that are
explained below:
Fetch: In this function, information and data are retrieved from its memory address and the data
is stored in the Current Instruction register (CIR). the program counter or PC is used for storing
the address of the instruction provided. Once the instruction is fetched the PC is then updated.
This supports the CPU to know the address of a instruction that need to be fetched next.
Decode: Here, the CPU identifies the op-code or operation code part of an instruction. This Op-
code tells about the operation to be performed. In case, the op-code needs CPU to react on some
data then second part of instruction contains the memory address where the data has been stored.
Execute: this is the last step where the control unit links to the parts of processor which are
actually required for execution of instruction (Rainie et al 2013).
7

Lo2
P3 Describe a range of different operating systems including the purpose, use and hardware
requirements of each.
Operating system (OS) is referred to that program which is loaded initially into computer system
through boot program. OS is responsible for managing other application programs present in the
computer. Application programs uses operating system for making requests to offer services
through pre-defined API (application program interface). Users can directly interact with OS
though user interface like graphical user interface (GUI) and command line.
Services the OS perform for the corresponding applications:
 The multitasking operating system can support multiple programs running in same
instance of time. Operating system effectively determines order of applications run and
allocates time accordingly (Freiberger, 2014).
 OS manages the internal memory sharing between different applications.
 Operating system is responsible for handling the input and output hardware devices of a
computer system.
 OS also offers parallel processing, they manages program division.
Some of the most common desktop operating systems are Windows, Linux and OS X. even
though every OS is different from one another. They mostly provide GUI (graphical user
interface), and manages computer’s folders and files. It supports installation and running of
programs that are exclusively written for OS. Linux and Windows can be installed effectively in
any standard hardware of computer system, whereas OS X has been designed absolutely to run
only on system of Apple.
Most commonly known operating systems are Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Ubuntu and
Linux.
Ubuntu: This is one of the most used OS that is built on Debian's architecture and infrastructure.
The operating system consists of desktop, Linux server, tablet operating system versions etc. this
8

operating system is open and free source. Producer of Ubuntu is Canonical. This operating
system is popular OS for clouds. The codes of the Ubuntu can be created and modified by any
users according to their needs. Programs of Ubuntu are less ubiquitous.
Figure 4: Desktop of computer system having Ubuntu OS
Windows 10: This is the latest version of operating system developed and operated by
Microsoft. This Windows operating system is operated and owned by Microsoft. Microsoft is
only responsible for modifying and altering the program code. This is one of the most commonly
and widely used OS (Friedman and Kahn 2, 017).
9

Figure 5: Windows 10
Mac OS X: This Operating System are created exclusively by Apple for its manufactured
computer systems. Mac OS X now named macOS is is not an open source OS. Apple’s
developers make improvements and alteration in the codes.
10

Figure 6: Screensort of MAC OS X
Table 3: Feature and requirement of different OS
Feature Requirement
Ubuntu Auto-configured Hardware
 This OS supports multiple desktops Secure OS, no antivirus is needed. Software are free and open SSH client built into the
operating system (Silberschatz, et al
2014)
 Processor: Dual core 2 GHz
 RAM: 2 GB required
 Hard-drive space: 25 GB
 Display: 1024x768 VGA resolutions.
 Internet access.
MAC OSX
11

 Easy and quick installation of
application
 Bonjour is used for Zero-config
printing and proper networking
 Built-in Perl, Apache, PHP
 Seamless multi-monitor support
 Classic Environment and Boot Camp’
 Processor: Intel Core 2 Duo,
Xeon processor, Core i3,i5, i7 or
 RAM: 1 GB at least
 Display: Built-in display
 Disk space: 5 GB -7 GB disk space
Windows 10
 The web browser like Internet Explorer
has been replaced by Microsoft Edge
 Has Central Notification Center
 Multiple Desktops can function
 Windows 10 has Continuum which
allows toggling between keyboard and
touch screen.
 Multi-factor authentication is offered
 Processor: 1 GHz
 RAM: 1 GB for 32-bit and 2 GB for
64-bit system.
 Display: 800x600 resolution
 Graphics card: DirectX 9
 Hard disk: 16 GB for 32-bit and 20 GB
for 64-bit OS.
12

P4 Discuss the key features associated with the architecture of an operating system.
Operating system architecture
Operating system core components are referred to the as kernel.Kernel which can be used
unrestrictedly by the resources that are represented in the system. Within the monolithic systems
each and every elements of the operating system is presented in the kernel and this will support
the direct communication between the other components by implementing no restriction on the
accessibility. On the other side, OS is quite effective as it will lead towards the difficult isolation
of the errors and risk of high damage because of the malicious code is also there (Silberschatz et
al, 2014).
Because of the complex and large operating system the designer mainly come up with the
modular approach which is grouped by all the components and also have the similar functions
between the layers to manage its complexity.
Components of the operating system
Kernel: This is the computer program which is considered as OS core of the computers. This has
the complete control over all the systems and this is the first program that loads within the
computer system on its start-up. This program is also capable to handle the start-up and request
of the input and output from different type of software and after that translate the request in the
instructions of the data-processing for the CPU. This program is classified in the Monolithic
kernel and Micro kernel.
Monolithic kernel: This is referred as the traditional approach which provides the basic services
like- memory, process management and interrupts handling which also include within the single
module. This type of architecture has the various drawbacks like- Huge kernel size and poor
maintenance. This will take time consumption during the bug fixation and add new features.
Micro kernel: This is the new concept and also has the modules which can be un-loaded and
loaded dynamically. Micro Kernel also supports the OS extension which helps in the proper
kernel maintenance (Dautenhahn et al, 2015).
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Memory manager
MM (memory manager) of the OS is responsible to handle and manage the primary memory in
the system. This will help in moving different process and back among the main memory and
disk that process execution. This is also responsible to take the decisions about which allocate
the entire process.
Process Scheduler
Process scheduler within the OS is quite responsible towards scheduling the process which
handles to remove the running process and then select another process within the CPU. This
system is of three types such as- long, short and medium term scheduler. In the Long term
scheduler help to bring the new process of the ‘Ready State’ and short term scheduler in which it
will select the process to schedule the Ready State. Medium term scheduler is responsible to
resume and suspend the process (Peter et al 2016).
File System
This is the computing which refers to control about the data which is stored in the system or
retrieved. In this deprived of the file system within the computer and information storage in the
medium which will have the large body of the data and have no proper method to be created and
tell about the information locations. This system is classified as the disk file systems; file
systems, special-purpose which is based on the structure with the security and size.
14

Lo3
P5 Explain the relationships between hardware and network addresses including their use with
regards to networking devices and components
The entire network device has two different types of addresses logical address and physical
address. In most cases IP address is logical address and MAC is the physical address.
Definition Mac Address: For unique hardware interface Mac addressing is used. On a LAN
network no two devices has same MAC address. The MAC address is purchased generally by
manufacturer. During the process of manufacturing, the vendor will "burn" and assign a
particular MAC address to every NIC card's ROM (memory).
Mac address is written in 12 hexadecimal digits i.e. these are 48-bit hexadecimal addresses. The
format used for Mac address is MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS. MM:MM:MM here is 3-byte address
of the manufacturer. Whereas, the SS: SS:SS format represent serial number of the NIC card
used in the network. In case the NIC card is being replaced for a computer, its MAC address
changes automatically. MAC address is applied in OSI/TCP/IP model mostly in the data link
layer. The MAC address of a computing device can be achieved by the implementation of ARP
or Address Resolution Protocol (Harris and Harris, 2015).
For windows, steps involved in finding out the MAC address:
 Start-Program-Accessories-Command prompt
 Type ipconfig/all
15

Figure 7: MAC address of a system
Definition of IP Address: In contrast to MAC address, IP Address is referred to logical
address that is used for network connections. IP addresses are used for identifying the network
host. These addresses are allocated by Internet Service Provider or by the network administrator.
Through IP address both network and the host device can be identified effectively. IP address is
mostly used while routing and supports network connection and identification. In case, a
computer system is connected to two different networks then it has two IP addresses.
IP address is used usually for IPv4 that is the fourth IP protocol version using 32 bit addressing.
The newer version IPv6 uses 128-bit addressing. These addresses are dynamically allocated and
they change frequently according to the connected network. for retrieving IP address RARP or
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is implemented.
16

For windows, steps involved in finding out the IP address:
 Start-Program-Accessories-Command prompt
 Enter command prompt
 Enter ipconfig
Figure 8: IP address in command prompt
Table 4: Comparison between MAC and IP address
Comparison
Parameter
MAC IP
Purpose Identifies physical address of a
system
Identifies system connection with
internet.
Bits It is 48 bits hexadecimal address. For IPv4 it is 32-bit address and for
IPv6 IP address is of 128 bit
Address assigned NIC Manufacturer Internet Service Provider or network
administrator
17

Retrieve Address ARP protocol retrieves MAC address RARP protocol retrieves IP address.
18

P6 Setup, configure and document appropriate hardware and software systems to establish
computer based network connectivity
19

Lo4
P7 Use information gathering methods to assess troubleshoot and document solutions to a
number of different technical hardware, software and networking issues.
Questionnaire is created for conducting a research program to understand the common technical
issues that are experienced by the user commonly. According to this measures can be adapted for
troubleshooting.
1. Is there any hardware or software issue in the computer system you are currently using?
 Yes
 No
2. According to you name the most common issue you frequently face?
 Software issue
 Hardware issue
 Networking issue
 All of the above
 None of the above
3. Do the browser Image turned off? If yes at what percentage (time)?
 Over 75%
 Between 51 and 75%
 Between 26% and 50%
 Under 25%
4. Common hardware issue you come across
 Slow computer
 Peripherals not working properly
 Overheating
 Unusual noises
5. Common software problem you face?
 Attachments won’t open
 Google performing oddly
20

 Pop-up ads
 Computer freezes
6. In a computer troubleshooting must be done:
 From outside in (from the peripherals in)
 From motherboard out
 Ask for help
Common issues related to hardware, software and networking:
Overheating: Most common issues that the user faces is overheating of the CPU or the computer
system, this is an important factors that leads to shortening of computer’s life and performance.
This issue rises mostly because of cheap and unconscious cooing element selection, or the
incorrect installation.
Malicious programs and virus attack: Viruses are nuisance, it lead data damage, slow device
and Internet connections.
User errors: Damage are caused unconsciously to computer’s hardware and software elements.
These issues may rise during installing, due to incorrect driver installation, deletion of a file or a
disk.
Measures to be taken:
 The system must go through proper and frequent back up of data.
 The computer must be unplugged from power sources before any hardware installation.
 The antivirus must be updated regularly along with suitable authentication techniques for
protecting the computer system against computer viruses and attacks.
 The ventilation and fan must be check and cleansed regularly for avoiding overheating.
21

P8 Conduct and document a range of maintenance activities with regards to computer hardware
and software.
Disk defragmentation: Defragmenting is done for arranging the fragmented files present in the
hard drive of a computer system. Through defragmentation the available disk space can be
optimized and this ultimately leads to increasing the overall system performance. Whenever a
disk gets defragmented, all the fragmented files are congregate together as contiguous clusters
(Hennessy, and Patterson, 2011). This supports the OS to read the files faster and function
accordingly. In case of system having Windows 10, the C: drive or the system drive is generally
defragmented. Steps for defragmentation are stated below:
1. Sign-in with administrator account.
2. Click the Start button.
3. Open the File Explorer present in the Start menu.
Figure 9: Start menu having the File explorer
4. Local Disk (C :) is clicked next which has the Windows 10 installed in system. Clicked
the Properties option.
22

Figure 10: Open the Local Disk (C :)
5. Click the Tools tab present in the Properties box of Local Disk.
6. The Optimize button is clicked next for Optimize and defragment drive section.
Figure 11: Optimizing the computer’s drive
23

Figure 12: The drive is selected for Optimization
7. Click the Analyse button for continuing defragmentation. Then the windows effectively
analyses and displays fragmented file along with the percentage of fragmentation.
Figure 13: Percentage of fragmentation
8. Click the Optimize button for starting defragmentation process over the selected volume.
24

Figure 14: Initializing the Defragmentation process
9. Restart the computer system after defragments.
Clearing the Browser History: The browser’s history contains information of search that user
has made in the course of time. This history may include passwords, sensitive data, thus for
security purposes and troubleshooting this browser history is to be cleared in regular time
interval. For Chrome’s the browser history can be deleted or cleared quite easily by following the
mentioned steps:
1. Click the Chrome menu button present on browser’s toolbar.
2. Click on More Tools
3. Select the option showing Clear browsing data.
4. Selected the option “the beginning of time” from the drop down menu.
5. Click and select all option such as, Browsing history, Download history, Cached images
and Cookies, from the checkbox
6. Click the Clear browsing data button.
25

Figure 15: Cleaning the browser’s history
Back-ups
Back-up is copy of files present in computer system using different storage devices. This step is
followed for protecting important files so that it can be used for later references. There are two
kinds of data that must be back-up: one is that file that is updated frequently update and the other
is application or programs that are the part of computer system (Islam, 2014).
Steps followed:
7. Open the Control Panel.
26

Figure 16: Control panel is clicked
8. Next Clicked “System and Security” option.
27

Figure 17: System and security option is clicked
9. “Backup and Restore” option is selected.
Figure 18: Backup and Restore
10. Clicked “Create a system image link”.
28

Figure 19: Back up Storing
11. The option "On a hard disk" is clicked from the drop-down menu for storing and saving
the backup files.
12. Start backup button is clicked.
Fan Cleaning
The fan in the computer is installed as a cooling system for the computer. It draws cool air so
that the overall system remains cool (Müller, and Paul, 2013). Along with the air it tends to draw
dust this dust deposit with time that will be harmful for the system not cleaned in regular
intervals. Steps to be followed for cleaning the Fan:
1. Computer is unplugged so that it can be opened.
2. Power supply is disconnected from the computer system.
3. The fan is unplugged from motherboard.
4. Vacuum, cloth or compressed air is used for blowing out the dust.
5. Plugged everything back.
29

Antivirus updates/scanning
The main purpose of installing Antivirus is to protect the system from unwanted access and
various threats and vulnerabilities. Antivirus are defense system that protects data, programs
and files. This application software must be kept up-to-dated.
30

Conclusion
Computer system is presently used for performing various operations and function. Computer
system is a composition of various hardware and software elements which has been discussed in
the above report. Main component of a computer is the CPU. The repost has discussed it
importance, purpose and elements that form the CPU unit of the computer. Computer system can
operated only with is operating system. This OS is software that is designed for controlling and
managing all the other components within the computer system. Report has been discussed
regarding importance of OS. Every computer has two distinct addresses, the report effectively
has discussed and compares both the type of address i.e. MAC and IP address. Computer system
faces various issues and the report has elaborated the issues and has made research by creating a
questionnaire for proper understanding and mitigating the issues accordingly. At last report has
discussed the maintenance activities for proper performance and functionality.
31

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