Computer System Architecture: Understanding Hardware, Software, and Networking

This comprehensive guide delves into the fundamental concepts of computer system architecture, exploring the intricate relationships between hardware components, software systems, and networking technologies. From the core principles of Von Neumann architecture to the intricacies of operating systems and network protocols, this resource provides a detailed understanding of how computers function and interact. It covers key topics such as memory management, CPU operation, network addressing, and troubleshooting techniques, equipping readers with the knowledge to diagnose and resolve common technical issues. Additionally, a practical example of a LAN network design for ACME training is presented, showcasing the application of these concepts in a real-world scenario.

COMPUTER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Introduction: In this era of technology computer has an important role in a human being. In every field
related to human services such as education, medical, defiance, etc. nothing can be done without a
computer. A computer is an electronic machine that interacts with the user, take his input and provide
result according to his operation and also provide facilities for storing the data. Another advantage of the
computer is that it provides the networking facility to the users in which users can share the data among
them from different locations.
In this chapter, I have discussed computer architecture and how it works. I included following things
about the computer, Von Neumann architecture of the computer and its part such as I/O, memory unit,
control unit, and arithmetic and logical unit. I discussed the operating system and its key features or its
services. And I designed a prototype network for the ACME as a consultant for ACME (O’Reilly, 2018).

LO1 Explain the relationships between hardware components and the subsystems used in a computer
system
P1 Identify the main subsystems of a computer and explain how they are organised and connected.
Here I have given a diagram of Von Neumann architecture; following are the key features of-of this
architecture.
Figure 1: von Neumann architecture
Source (Tipsandarticles, 2018.)
Memory: commuter has a memory unit which is used to hold and store the data, this also called as RAM
that means random access memory.
Types of memory in the computer: basically it is categorized in type’s primary memory and secondary
memory.
Primary memory: It is also called volatile memory because it is not able to store the data permanently,
that is known as RAM

Random access memory (RAM): It has an ability of both read and writes but when at the condition of a
power failure your data has been lost permanently. This may be following type DRAM, DRDRAM and
SRAM.
Secondary memory: this memory is a permanent memory and also known as an external memory of a
computer such as floppy disk and magnetic disk.
Read Only Memory (ROM): it is the permanent mammary of the computer that is available in a huge
range in modern days but it can be read-only. And there is no loss of data at the time of power failure.
There are several types of the room such as PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.
Cache Memory: it is the fastest memory and stores a little data as compared to the main memory of
commuter.
BIOS: it means basic input and output system; it is in the form of software that stored on a memory chip
of the motherboard (Informationq, 2016).

Control unit: this unit is the mind of the computer that manages and controls the flow of data to outside
the memory and inside the memory and also deals with programming instructions. And this contains the
registers to store the intermediate value.
Input and output:
Input: Users that enter the data for processing that is known as input and this input can be feed by
various input devices which are given below.
List of input devices: mouse, keyboard, joystick, barcode reader, and scanner.
Output: after entering the input users expect to the result after manipulating the data devices that shows
the result is known as output devices,
List of output devices: monitor, printer, speaker, plotter and projector
Arithmetic logic unit(ALU): All the arithmetic and logical calculations are performed in this part of a
computer such as addition subtraction multiplication and divide or logical calculations “greater than, less
than and equal to” all these are performing by ALU (Teach-ict, 2018)
Hardware: generally computer contains the various mechanical electrical and electronic components
these all devices are known as hardware devices such as a motherboard, mouse, flash drive floppy disk
etc.
Software: it can not touch by a human being it is a set program or instructions in a various programming
language such as Java, python and c++. These software’s such as system software, application software
etc.
The relationship between software and hardware:
Software trigger to the hardware to perform any specific work in another word it can be said that software
and hardware are the soul and heart of the computer, for example, there is software of AutoCAD that
trigger the hardware to make a design (Das, 2018).

P2 Explain the purpose of the Central Processing Unit(CPU) and include details on its operation.
Purpose of the Central Processing Unit(CPU):
The main objective of the CPU is to be work on programming instructions. It is designed to execute the
particular instructions and the set of instructions carried out by the CPU to meet the purpose.
Figure 2 control processing unit
Source (Cssforum, 2018)

The function of CPU:
1. Fetching step:
 This means retrieving the instructions from the memory and stores it at the instruction register.
 And instruction address is to be stored at another register known as program counter register (PC)
2. Decoding step: it contains the identification of programming code that tells to the processor that which
operation is to be performed.
3. Executing step: this means performing of operations according to instruction code for an example, an
instruction that has an arithmetic operation with integer number then ALU connect to the relevant
memory address hence;
 Data is to be passed through data bus from memory to ALU.
 Then ALU execute the necessary operation
 After result passes through data bus from the ALU
Components of CPU: there are various components in a central processing unit which are following:
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): There is an ALU in the central processing unit that contains
electronic circuitry for performing the logical and arithmetic operations with the integers.
Integer arithmetic operations are (multiplication and additions) and logical operations are OR, NOT,
AND etc. and also there is a floating point unit that used to perform the operation on floating point
numbers. And also there is a resister which is used to store the data temporary that is known as an
accumulator (Cssforum, 2018)

Control unit: this performs the function of fetching, decoding, and executions of instructions and storing
the result. The main function of this is too control the other elements of CPU. It can communicate with
both ALU and memory unit. It has many registers such as program counter and an instruction register.
 Program counter: it stores the next instruction memory address
 Current instruction: this register is used to store the address of the currently executed
instruction.
Registers: These are the instant storage devices that are used to storing the data which is to be processed.
There are various registers such as programming counter, flag and stack.
Buses: these are the group of parallel wires like a pipe that is used to carry the data from CPU to external
devices and vice versa. These are available in different length such as 32, 64 bits etc. There are three main
buses which are following
 Address bus: it links the memory address to CPU components to read-write operations.
 Data bus: data flows through this bus between CPU and memory address when read-write
operation is carried out.
 Control buses: it is used to send the control signals and acknowledge signal between the external
devices and CPU components (Gcsecomputing, 2018).

LO2 Categorize the key features and services provided by different computer operating systems and
hardware.
P3 Describe a range of different operating systems including the purpose, use and hardware requirements
of each.
Operating system: an operating system is a software that runs on system or computer. The operating
system manages the memory of the computer and also its process. And it plays an important role in the
interaction of the user to the computer. In other words, it can be said that without operating system
computer is nothing.
Figure 3 operating system
Source (Wikipedia, 2018)
Types of the operating system: there are various operating systems in the market that are generally used
by the people, Such as Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows, Linux and Unix etc.
Microsoft Windows: it created the windows OS at the mid of 1980. After passing these years there have
been many versions introduce in the market such as windows7, windows8, and windows10, etc.
Mac OSX: It is created by Apple and it is a line of operating system its entire recent version called as
OSX, and some specific version contains El Capitan (2015), mountain lion (2012), Mavericks (2013),
Yosemite (2014) and lion (2011). These operating systems are generally less uses as compare to
windows OS because these are expensive.
Linux: it is an open source OS that means it can be modified by the user world. This is different from
windows software that can only be modified by the company.

UNIX: it is also an operating system that has a GUI graphical user interface same as Microsoft windows
easy environment to use. This is a stable, multi-tasking and multi-user system for laptops and for desktops
(Gcflearn, 2018).
Android:
This is a mobile operating system that is developed by Google mainly for touch screen mobiles. The
design of this android software’s permits to the user interaction in a different way and it provide facilities
such as tapping swiping and pinching. Instead of mobile, it can be employed to the televisions
wristwatches and in cars to interface with users.
IOS:
It is a mobile operating system that is more over 10 years old. Basically, it is run on Apple smart mobile
phones, such as in iPod’s and iPhones. It is main software that allows the user to interact with Apple
mobile phones and tablets. When you visit settings of your tablet or mobile phones wherefrom you can
make changes such as brightness, Bluetooth on and off, Wi-Fi all these are done by the operating system.
(Barraclough, 2015).
Figure 4 type of operating system
Source (Whhs, 2018)

P4 Discuss the key features associated with the architecture of an operating system.
The architecture of operating system:
Kernel: the main core of any operating system is the kernel, that is a software which is responsible for
running of any program and provide a secure access to the hardware of the machine, and it also
determines that how long would run any software. This is also known as scheduling of devices. And it
depends on drivers of software that translate the command to the specific command that required for such
devices (Wikibooks, 2018).
Figure 5Architecture of the operating system
Source (Wikibooks, 2018).
API: it stands for application program interface; basically it has a set of protocol and many tools for
making the software applications. A good API can make the simple of developing the program, by
providing the facilities of building blocks (Beal, 2018).

Operating system services:
User interface: it is the main part of operating system that provides to user interaction with devices such
as enter into and receives the information from the computer.
Graphical user interface: basically GUI is the widely used interface by the operating system, instead of
TUI because users can manipulate the multiple graphical objects.
TUI: it stands for text user interface, in which commands are entered in the form of text a few operating
systems used this.
Figure 6: operating system service
Source (Balasundar, 2012).

Memory management: memory management is the controlling and managing the memory of a computer
such as assigning the blocks to the various program that are running. In hardware, it includes the elements
that store the data such as RAM chip, caches and SSDs. In the operating system, it means the allocation
of memory blocks to the particular program as users demand. It involves the various steps such as
swapping, paging, fragmentation and memory allocation.
File management: a file means a collection of data or information that is stored by the computer. The
computer can store the file in local disk for long-term storage. Example of such type of storage is DVD,
CD, magnetic disk and an optical disk. A file system generally organized in the form of directories by
which user can understand easily (Thakur, 2018).
Hardware management: a computer is made from both software and hardware, software interact to the
hardware to receive the data and after manipulating this it displays the result on the output devices every
part of hardware comes with the software which is known as a driver. A drive works as a mediator
between the software and particular hardware devices.
Most of the driver of devices is installed at the time of booting into the memory by the operating system.
And some are loaded when that particular hardware is to be connected to the computer. For example
word processor sends a signal to the printer that data is to be sent by the drivers. Similar music player
sends the music to the sounds card driver (Teach-ict, 2018).
Figure 7 Hardware management
Source (Teach-ict, 2018).

LO3 Use network communication technology and the associated services to connect
computer systems
P5 Explain the relationships between hardware and network addresses including their use with regards to
networking devices
Networking protocols
HTTP: it is used by the websites and it has some additional features about security, mostly it is required
when web transaction is made to secure. When a client enters into the particular website through a web
browser then DNS resolve it and send to a particular IP address. After resolving the address HTTP send a
request signal to the server.
SMTP: It stands for simple mail transfer protocol that is used for sending of mail between the SMTP
servers. For achieving this SMTP has its own MX (exchanger of mail.) in the database of DNS. SMTP
uses the TCP transmitting the mail and it operates on port 25. And it is also known as application layer
protocol.
TCP: it stands for transmission control protocol; it is used for reliable delivery of data in layer 4 to the
destination. TCP provides a full duplex and reliable connection between source and destination. For
example, in the postal department, latter posts to destination and receiver must put hid sign on it that
indicate actually receiving of latter. It provides the guarantee of sending the information
UDP: it stands for user datagram protocol; it doesn’t provide the guarantee of sending the data it just like
an Indian lower class postal circle in which latter is delivered through Dropbox and there is no
acknowledgement by the receiver.
TCP/ IP: TCP is the connection based protocol that is used to send the data into packets over the
network. These are located on the network layer of OSI model. And IP provides the routing according to
their IP address. IP is also known as a connectionless protocol that doesn’t make the connection between
the destinations and sources (ComputerNetworkingNotes. 2018).

Physical/MAC addresses:
The word MAC means media access control that is also known as physical address every network adapter
has its own MAC address this is a six-byte number that is embedded permanently into the adaptor
firmware and it can be read by the operating system and network of the device where the adaptor is
installed. All the standard of the address is defined by the IEEE. And it is necessary to follow them. The
main objective of MAC address is to provide the unique identity to any node (Kb.iu.edu, 2018).

Logical/IP addresses:
This the address of connecting devices in the computer network, every device such as laptop printer,
desktop, scanner tablet routers and smartphone all are assigned an IP address. And every IP network that
transmitting the data has an IP address of source and destination (Pcmag, 2018).
Network devices and components:
 Switches: it works like hub the difference between them is that hub work as a data forwarding
and switch filter it and set in an intelligent way on the form of packets of data.
 Routers: it is a networking device that provides the path or routs for the data packets over the
network.
 Bridge: it is used to link the two subnetworks within a network you can think about the two
different floors that are connected through a bridge.
 Repeater: it can be assumed an amplifier for its receiving signal in another way can understand
that repeater is a device that receives the signal and sends it at a high level.
 Network cable: the cables are used to connect the devices to the network there are various cables
are used such as coaxial cable, STP, UTP, optical fibre cable etc (Shekhar, 2016).
 Network interface card (NIC): It is like an adaptor that is in the form of a card that is to be
fitted into a slot at the motherboard, today’s most of the computers have this expansion but you
can add your own NIC in your system to expending the function of the computer. The hardware
interface provided by NIC between the network and computer. This NIC can be used in both
wired network and in a wireless network (Mitchel, 2018).

P6 Setup, configure and document appropriate hardware and software systems to establish computer-
based network connectivity.
As a training consultant for ACME training, I have designed a prototype model of a LAN network which
is suitable for company.
Model
The network design for the company ACME has various components to be configured. The network
design sustains quite a feasible approach that will fulfil the basic requirement of the company for their
network. The network design is developed on Cisco’s Packet Tracer software which is a network
simulator.
The network model consists of the number important hardware and their configurations. To be met for a
better feasible network design. There are different departments in the company that needs to be
configured for the working of the network. There is a great requirement of servers in the company to
provide a central shareable service like a mail server, FTP (File Transfer Protocol) server and web server.
The network design includes the implementation and configuration of the LAN (Local Area Network)
network. The network technology provides all the basic specification of a network to the end users of the
company. There is DHCP (Dynamic Host Control Protocol) configured in the router that provides
dynamic IPs to the PCs.
The network IP address scheme is based on the C class Network address.
Department Network Id Subnet Mask
Department 1 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0
Department 2 192.168.2.0 255.255.255.0
Department 3 192.168.3.0 255.255.255.252
Server 192.168.0.0 255.255.255.252
The following is the screenshot from the networked design –

Figure 8: Network design
Implementation –
Email - There is mail server configured in the main server that provides email functionality to the users.
Below is the screenshot of the working of the email –

Figure 9: Email received to user1 from user2
Web server – A web server is also configured in the building that provides web access to the users.
Following is the screenshot of the website which is being hosted over the HTTP server.
Figure 10: Hosted Website of the company

DHCP – DHCP is configured in the router configuration so that Dynamic IPs can be allotted to the users.
Figure 11: Working in the DHCP
FTP - A File Transfer protocol is also configured so that the users can share the file services hosted by the
server. Following is the screenshot of the FTP access –
Figure 12: FTP service access from a PC

Hardware Used in the network –
Device Configuration
Router Cisco 4200 Series Router
Switch Cisco Catalyst 2960 Series
PC OS - Win 10, RAM - 4 GB, HD – 250 GB
Server OS - Windows Server 2012, RAM - 8 GB, HD - 1
TB
Cables Copper Coaxial, Copper Cross-over


LO4 Demonstrate diagnostic and troubleshooting skills to solve hardware, software and
networking related issues.
P7 Use information gathering methods to assess troubleshoot and document solutions to a number of
different technical hardware, software and networking issues.
Hardware issues and troubleshooting
 Low memory problem: there is so much space on the computer but some time when you save any
file and folder it shows that there is no space.
 Solution: to prevent this type of problem you need to delete all unwanted file from local disk.
 Slow running problem: sometimes running speed is very slow then and it may be hanging out.
 Solution: this problem can occur due to the ram or due to the virus, the solution for this you
should remove the ram from the slot and reinsert after cleaning it.
 CPU heating issue: overheating CPU can courses many problems it can destruct the hardware
structure or processor.
 Solution: to avoiding this problem you must tale a suitable slandered for cooling.
 Hard disk issue: hard disk can be destroyed at any time and it may provide fault message to the
user. If there is any major problem then you have to replace it with the new one. When hard disk
of computer destroyed then you will receive a message that system disk is not found.
 Solution: when you receive such error message you should check your connection to the hard
disk if it is losses then correct it and reconnect it and also check the ram and insert it at correct
place Software. (2014)
Software issue troubleshooting:
Blue Screen (BSoD): it is also known as death screen this colour also occurs at the time of rebooting but
sometimes it occurs at the time of any error of computer. It gives the code on the screen which can help
you and recognize the problem of and how to solve it.
Missing DDL files: DDL stands for dynamic link library that has information about your system and
how it functions to perform. But sometimes computer losses the DDL files then something can be
damaged from the computer. If you receive an error massage then to solve this problem you have to
download it and install your PC.
Slowly running of the application:
There are various reasons for the slow speed of software and it can involve your operating system. It can
occur due to the missing update of your operating system or due to the less space in hard disk.

Applications Behaviour:
Sometimes your applications behave like strange and you think that what happened. For example, your
word document has full content but it doesn’t show the top margin.
Troubleshooting by system repair software:
System repair software can be used for repairing the system. It can fix the problem with your computer.
Much of them can repair the problem of the operating system which leads to the death of blue screen.
And also it can be used for damaging or missing DDL files. It optimizes the computer for speeding up
Bowen, 2018).
P 8 Conduct and document a range of maintenance activities with regards to computer hardware
and software:
Data gathering methods and techniques:
System document: these documents are providing the using procedure of computer architecture.
This document has all the policies and procedure of the computer architecture and about its
components such as how it operates and which companies component and element is used and
how they work.
User information: pages of user information provide you with with the facilities to change your
address and name and also can change your personal information.
Figure 13: user information
Source (Veitch, 2018).

Error codes and Error messages: So many error code can be generated in winnows these error codes
are the indications of failure of the task. Here I provided the widow's error code with their description
Figure 14 error code and description
Source (Veitch, 2018).

Failure of the domain: Domain is the address of any website so if it is a failure then it is the worst thing
for the owner. In these days registration of domain name is a great business and it can be said the familiar
domain name can be searched easily on the internet by the visitors. Services that can in a specific manner
called failure domain. If a single host provides the different services, these can fail due to the connection
problems or due to the power outage at that time it becomes unavailable for a moment.
Document range for maintaining the hardware and software:
Managing the software and hardware is much difficult these days when the user has a single PC
on LAN with small applications. And complexity is increased when the number of users
increased with the number of PCs and devices these all require the support. With multiple
systems and multiple applications at different locations then IT department faces more
challenges.
In accordance to consider all these things such as inventory control and device management need
a technical support in many ways of a security issue (Veitch, 2018).
Future improvements: I explain here some future improvement for the effectiveness of
computer that can change our lives.
Hardware: It should be small, ubiquitous and must be cheap. In this era of computers, a large
amount of computer is used in organizations. Hence minicomputers and microcomputers can
easily affordable for small companies. We are entering the era where sensors and processor
getting cheap and small.
Figure 15: graph representation for hardware size improvement
Source (Dixon, 2016)

Software:
There are so many of things which are happening today in the field of software such as distribution
system is a good example for this to understand. As a number of computers have increased it is important
to perform the various task on multiple machines distributed technologies contains system like spark and
Hadoop that solve the big data problems and some technology like blockchain and bitcoin are used to
secure data access (Dixon, 2016)
Maintenance activity for computer:
Clean the displays, case and keys: this is the first task that you should clean the display from the dust.
Backup your data: important data and information can keep safe through the backup.
Scanning against the viruses and malware: For long time uses of computer user should install an
antivirus program in his commuter and it needs to scanning at regular interval.
Deleting unwanted files and folders:
It is necessary that you should delete the unwanted directories from the local disk of the computer. And
also avoid the unauthorised access of data through using of login password (Calderon, 2012).

Conclusion:
I have successfully created a training package for training workers on the services that are provided by a
different type of computer operating system I have designed a prototype LAN network successfully for
the ACME management as a training consultant for ACME. Technical emulation report architecture
of the operating system and on their requirement completed successfully.
I have successfully diagnosed and troubleshot the issues related to hardware and software.The
design that I have made for the ACME management is useful and suitable for it.

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