Construction 3D Printing

This article explores the technology of construction 3D printing and its applications in the construction industry. It discusses different 3D printing processes such as stereolithography, selective laser sintering, fused deposition modelling, and inkjet powder printing. The advantages and disadvantages of each process are also discussed. The article also covers the various construction 3D printing technologies, including contour crafting and D-Shape. It provides insights into the impact of 3D printing on the construction industry and its future prospects.

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CONSTRUCTION 3D PRINTING
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Table of Contents
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................3
What is 3D Printing?.................................................................................................................................3
3D Printing Processes................................................................................................................................4
Stereolithography (SLA).......................................................................................................................4
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)............................................................................................................5
Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM).....................................................................................................7
Inkjet Powder Printing.........................................................................................................................8
Construction 3D Printing Technologies...................................................................................................9
Contour Crafting...................................................................................................................................9
D-Shape................................................................................................................................................11
Concrete Printing................................................................................................................................12
Emerging objects.................................................................................................................................12
Concrete On-Site 3D Printing (CONPrint3D)...................................................................................13
Advantages of Construction 3D Printing...............................................................................................14
Disadvantages of Construction 3D Printing..........................................................................................14
Performance of 3D Printed Concrete.....................................................................................................15
Impact of 3D Printing on the Construction Industry...........................................................................16
Sustainability of 3D Printing in Construction Industry....................................................................16
Employment and labour impacts.......................................................................................................17
Logistics and Cost of 3D Printing vs. Traditional Construction......................................................17
Issues affecting the Implementation of 3D printing in the Construction Industry.............................18
Suitable Applications of 3D Printing in the Construction Industry....................................................18
Current Applications of 3D Printing..................................................................................................18
Future Applications of 3D Printing....................................................................................................19
References................................................................................................................................................21

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Introduction
3D printing is one of the most advanced technologies revolutionizing the construction
industry. Previously, this technology was prevalent in the manufacturing sector but it is now
being applied in the construction industry (Wu, Wang & Wang, 2016). This paper investigates
different aspects of 3D technology as applied in the construction industry. The information will
give a true picture of the role that 3D printing is playing in the construction industry and its
future prospects.
What is 3D Printing?
3D printing refers to the technique of creating 3D objects from a prototype in a digital file
(Greenhalgh, 2015). In this process, the physical 3D objects are created or built one layer after
the other – a process referred to as additive (Kamran & Saxena, 2016); (Ya, et al., 2018). 3D
printing involves three main steps. First is the preparation process where a 3D model of the
object to be created is designed. Second is the actual 3D printing process that is done using a 3D
printer. In this process, the 3D printer is instructed by the 3D digital file on how to build the 3D
object (Kitsakis, et al., 2016). Third is the finishing process that involves sanding, lacquering or
panting the printed object so as to achieve the desired final object (Sculpteo, (n.d.)). 3D printing
is also referred to as additive manufacturing (AM) and it has numerous applications in sectors
such as education, automotive, manufacturing, construction, aerospace, biomedical (Melchels, et
al., 2010), food (Carla & Atonio, 2016), consumer products, and fashion, among others (Yeole,
et al., 2016).

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3D Printing Processes
Stereolithography (SLA)
SLA is one of the earliest and most common 3D printing processes. The present-day
layered technique of SLA was first invented by Hideo Kodama, a Japanese researcher, in early
1980s where he cured photosensitive polymers using ultraviolet (UV) light. A patent for SLA
process was filed by French investors Jean Claude Andre, Olivier de Witte and Alain Le
Mehaute in 1984 but it was not successful. However, SLA was patented later in 1984 by Charles
Chuck Hull as a process of creating 3D objects using UV light to build successive thin layers of
the object from bottom to top. Since then, the process has been improved and is now widely used
in manufacturing and other sectors.
SLA is a 3D printing process where photopolymer resin or liquid is exposed to UV light
to harden and create the desired objects. In this process, a vat filled with liquid polymer resin
gets exposed to a UV laser beam that is able to trace the 3D model image layer onto the resin, as
shown in Figure 1 below. This exposure hardens the resin layer through polymerization. After
that, the build platform rises again, exposing the resin to the laser beam. The process continues
until the desired object is built one layer after the other.

Construction 3D Printing 5
Figure 1: Illustration of SLA process (WhiteClouds, 2017)
Advantages of SLA process include: it can create both small and large objects with very
high precision and quality surface finish; it creates functional parts quickly (within a few hours
or days) depending on their size and complexity; can create objects with specific properties using
different materials; can create objects of any shape; minimizes material wastage; and it creates
strong parts. Disadvantages of SLA include: it only works with photopolymer materials, which
are not stable over time; the process is limited to producing only three parts at a time hence not
suitable for mass production; the parts created are more fragile because materials used are resins
(Schmidleithner & Kalaskar, 2018); and the cost of most SLA machines used is still high.
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
SLS is a 3D printing process that was invented and patented in 1986 by Dr. Carl Deckard
and Dr. Joe Beaman at the University of Texas. Since then, this process has been improved to
work with different materials including ceramics, plastics, glass, metals and composites.
The print process of SLS starts by a laser scanning the 3D model’s cross-section followed
by dispersing a thin layer of polymer powder on top of a build platform inside the chamber. The
powder gets preheated by the printer to a temperature that is just below the material’s melting
point. In the process, the particles gets fused mechanically forming a solid part. The powder that
remains unfused is used for supporting the solid part being created during printing thus
eliminating the necessity for dedicated support structures. After the first layer has been created, it
gets lowered by the platform into the build chamber then a new layer of powder is applied by a
recoater on top (Yap, et al., 2015). This process is repeated until all layers of the solid part are
created. Thereafter, the parts are left to cool inside the 3D printer after which they are removed

Construction 3D Printing 6
and transferred to a cleaning station for cleaning and other post-processing activities (Palermo,
2013). The summary of SLS system is shown in Figure 2 and 3 below.
Figure 2: Illustration of SLS process (Formlabs, (n.d.))
Figure 3: SLS Process (Shirazi, et al., 2015)
Some of the advantages of SLS include: its self-supporting system allows printing of
parts with highly complex geometries (Kumar, 2014); it creates very strong, stiff and durable
parts; resists strong chemicals; it allows a wide range of finishing processes (Gokuldoss, et al.,
2017); it is a very quick 3D printing technique; and it allows use of different materials (Tiwari, et
al., 2015). Despite these advantages, SLS also has some disadvantages, which include: it creates

Construction 3D Printing 7
parts with a porous surface (Chang, et al., 2017); the process is expensive; and it is relatively
dangerous hence must be used only by experts and in a controlled environment.
Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
FDM is a 3D printing process that was developed in 1988 by the co-founder of Stratasys,
S. Scott Crump. After patenting the technology in 1989, they developed a software process for
converting STL files into a different format that was used for sliding cross-sections of 3D models
and determine the way of printing the layers.
FDM is done using FDM printer. The process involves extruding the raw material
(usually thermoplastics or metals) as a thin filament via the heated nozzle and depositing it at the
base of the printer platform (Konta, et al., 2017). The material is left for some time to solidify.
After that, the next layer of the raw material is extruded and deposited on top of the previous
layer where it solidifies and fuses with it. The process is repeated until the desired object is built
one layer after the other from bottom to top (Gebisa & Lemu, 2018). Figure 4 below is an
illustration of how FDM process works.
Figure 4: Illustration of FDM process (Disambe, 2014)

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Advantages of FDM include: it has short lead times; suitable for a wide range of
applications; produces stable, high quality and durable parts; and it is the most cost-effective
process for producing custom thermoplastic prototypes and parts. Some disadvantages of FDM
are: it has lower resolution and dimensional accuracy compared to other 3D printing processes;
post processing is mandatory for the produced parts to have a smooth finish; and the parts
produced from this process are inherently anisotropic.
Inkjet Powder Printing
Inkjet powder printing is a 3D printing process that was developed in 1993 by a group of
researchers from the Massachusetts University of Technology. An exclusive license for the
technology was obtained by Z Corporation in 1995. Originally, the technology used gypsum
plaster, starch and water.
In this process, the inkjet print head is moved across the powder bed, depositing a liquid
binding material to selected sections. After the section is complete, a thin layer of material
powder is spread over it then the process is repeated to form a new layer that sticks to the
previous layer until the complete object is created. After completing the object, unbound powder
is removed manually or automatically through a process called de-powdering (Barui, et al.,
2017). Figure 5 below illustrates how inkjet powder printing work.

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Figure 5: Illustration of inkjet powder printing (Al-Mussawi, et al., 2018)
Some of the advantages of inkjet powder printing are: the printers are portable; eliminates
wastage of materials; produces high quality parts (Guo, et al., 2017); and speeds up the
production process compared to traditional production processes. Disadvantages of inkjet
powder printing include: the inkjet powder printers are stills expensive; and the printing speed is
slower compared to that of laser printers.
Construction 3D Printing Technologies
Contour Crafting
This is a 3D printing technology developed by Dr. Behrokh Khoshnevis of the University
of Southern California and his students in 2009. Khoshnevis claimed later in 2010 that the
technology could be used to build a home in one day with very minimal waste and environmental
impact.
Contour crafting is a technology that uses a computer-controlled mobile crane to build
structures speedily and efficiently with very minimal labour. The technology uses quick-setting
material to create layers of the walls by a 3D printer connected to a robotic arm and/or crane

Construction 3D Printing 10
(Gaget, 2018). The crane or robotic arm contains nozzles that extrude concrete and deposit it to
form layers. Before the start of actual construction process, data is fed into the machine
specifying the specifications of the components. The concrete-like material is sprayed and
smoothened along contour paths using tools such as nozzles and arms (Lawson, 2014). This
technology reduces construction time and costs, minimizes potential environmental impacts,
eliminates or decreases waste, reduces potential injuries and deaths on construction sites (Sakin
& Kiroglu, 2017). Figure 6 and 7 below illustrates use of contour crafting in constructing a house
Figure 6: Schematic of contour crafting (Krassenstein, 2015)
Figure 7: Schematic of contour crafting technology (Gaget, 2018)

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D-Shape
D-shape is a large 3D printer that is designed to use binder-jetting, a technique that prints
objects one layer after the other (Tay, et al., 2017), to create objects by binding an inorganic
seawater and sand using a magnesium-based binder. The technology was patented by Enrico
Dini in 2006. At first, the technology could only use epoxy resin but after experiencing
problems, the binder was changed to magnesium-based one that is still being used until today
since being patented in 2008.
In this process, a layer of powder is deposited by hand then the D-Shape 3D printer
deposits a liquid binder that reacts with the powder to form structural components (Hirai, et al.,
2014). The materials used can be gravel, sand, crushed rock or recycled materials (D-Shape
Enterprises, (n.d.)). Advantages of this technology include: quick construction process, reduced
wastage, ability to create complex geometries, and minimal environmental impacts (Nerella, et
al., 2016). Figure 8 below shows a D-Shape 3D printer.
Figure 8: D-Shape 3D printer (Krassnstein, 2014)

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Concrete Printing
This technology was developed by a team of researchers at Loughborough University.
The technology involves extruding concrete and fusing it in layers to create a structure as guided
by the model in the digital file. This is done using a gantry printer. Its advantages include:
speedy construction process, low construction costs, minimal waste, and environmentally
friendliness (Lim, et al., 2012). The technology’s main disadvantages include: creates a visual
issue, and can create mechanical weaknesses in the structure formed such as anisotropic
properties (Le, et al., 2012). Figure 9 below shows concrete printing machine and a printed 3D
concrete component.
Figure 9: Concrete
printing (Tay, et al.,
2017)
Emerging objects
This is a power-based 3D printing technology developed by a team of researchers from
the University of California Berkeley in 2014. The technology works by selectively hardening an
exclusive formulation of cement composite by depositing a binding agent on the powder bed.
The technology is largely used for creating precast components off-site. This technique was the
one used to manufacture the Bloom (Figure 10) and the Sheds (Figure 11).

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Figure 10: Bloom (Nematollahi, Xia & Sanjayan, 2017)
Figure 11: Shed (Nematollahi, Xia & Sanjayan, 2017)
Concrete On-Site 3D Printing (CONPrint3D)
This is an extrusion-based 3D printing technology that was developed at the TU Dresden,
Germany, to overcome the challenges of other 3D printing technologies. It uses a concrete boom
pump for delivering construction materials to specific positions accurately and autonomously by
use of a tailored print head connected to the boom as shown in Figure 12 below. Its main
advantages are: use of common construction materials and machinery, high geometrical

Construction 3D Printing 14
flexibility, reduced reliance on skilled labour, lower construction costs and time, and improved
resource efficiency.
Figure 12: Illustration of CONPrint3D (Nematollahi, Xia & Sanjayan, 2017)
Advantages of Construction 3D Printing
Advantages of construction 3D printing over traditional methods of construction include:
speeds up construction processes; reduces amount of construction materials used; minimizes
potential injuries and fatalities on construction sites (Bah, 2018); minimizes construction waste
(Denonain, 2018); allows construction of structures with very complex geometries (Gosselin, et
al., 2016); (Hager, et al., 2016); lowers construction costs (Tay, et al., 2017); creates strong,
durable and disaster-resistant structures; improves construction project planning; increases
accuracy; and is environmentally friendlier (Yin, et al., 2018). The general advantages of 3D
printing technologies such as contour crafting, D-shape and concrete printing are: they use less
construction materials and labour (Mpofu, et al., 2014); reduce safety and health hazards and
risks on construction sites; minimize construction waste; higher design flexibility; reduce
delivery time; lower construction cost; and minimize environmental impacts.
Disadvantages of Construction 3D Printing
Some disadvantages of construction 3D printing include: the 3D printers are large and
less portable; the 3D printers are still costly; the technology only works with limited materials;

Construction 3D Printing 15
3D printers consume a lot of energy; many stakeholders in the construction industry are still not
familiar with the technology; the technology has not been fully accepted or trusted in the
industry; there are inadequate professionals to offer 3D printing expertise; high risks in case of
design errors; building codes for 3D printing are yet to be developed; and the technology is still
not suitable for large-scale construction projects (Perkins & Skitmore, 2015). Disadvantages of
contour crafting, D-shape and concrete printing are also similar and they include: large and
difficult to transport 3D printers; high cost of 3D printers; job losses; they can only use limited
materials; can create components with mechanical weakness; and post-processing is necessary to
achieve the desired surface finish.
Performance of 3D Printed Concrete
3D printed concrete have superior properties than traditional concrete mainly because it is
manufactured under controlled conditions, using materials that are thoroughly selected and
mixed, and it is poured precisely. This concrete is manufactured and poured using automated
machines that can modify the concrete ingredients, ensure precise concrete mix design
proportions, and mix the concrete ingredients properly so as to achieve high performance
concrete. Therefore 3D printed concrete can achieve higher mechanical strength (compressive,
tensile and characteristic strength), durability, fire resistance, impact resistance, thermal
resistance, creep resistance, shrinkage resistance, and acoustic properties, and less porosity.
Figure 13 below shows a 3D printer and printed specimen of beam.

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Figure 13: 3D printer and printed beam specimen (Malaeb, et al., 2015)
However, the strength of 3D printed concrete largely depends on the strength of bonding
between layers (Sanjayan, et al., 2018). The binding material should be strong enough to fuse the
layers and make strong components (Buswell, et al., 2018). Weak joints may be created by the
layered concrete thus reducing its load bearing capacity and overall performance (Paul, et al.,
2017). Therefore 3D printed concrete can achieve higher performance than the traditional
concrete if high quality materials and suitable 3D concrete printing technique are used, the
concrete is manufactured and used under suitable conditions (Zhang, et al., 2018), and the
machines of high accuracy are used.
Impact of 3D Printing on the Construction Industry
Sustainability of 3D Printing in Construction Industry
3D printing is a sustainable building technology because it minimizes material utilization
during construction phase, reduces construction waste, decreases construction costs, promotes
recycling and reuse of construction materials, reduces the need for extraction of natural
resources, creates resource efficient structures, and reduces environmental impacts. This
technology will improve resource efficiency of structures throughout their lifecycles thus

Construction 3D Printing 17
protecting the environment and improving quality of life. Thus 3D printing is potentially posed
to make the construction industry more sustainable (Ford & Despeisse, 2016).
Employment and labour impacts
The massive disruption brought by 3D printing on the construction industry is expected
to cause numerous job losses across the world. This is because 3D printing requires very minimal
human labour. Many companies along the supply chain in the construction industry are also
expected to lose business opportunities because of 3D printing technology. Unemployment rate
in construction industry is expected to rise because the services of majority of workers with
traditional construction skills will no longer be needed. Nevertheless, the technology will also
create new job opportunities as the demand for professionals with skills of using 3D printers
increase even though new jobs created may not match the number of jobs lost.
Logistics and Cost of 3D Printing vs. Traditional Construction
The cost of 3D printing technology is still high mainly because of limited availability of
3D printers and experts, even though this cost is continuing to decrease with time. However, this
technology ensures seamless integration of design and construction stages of a project thus
eliminating problems associated with poor communication and coordination of stakeholders in
the two stages. After creating the 3D model, the 3D printer is connected to the robotic arms or
cranes that extrude the concrete made on site and create structure on site. This eliminates the
numerous problems associated with late delivery of materials. The technology is making it
possible to build structures with very complex geometries at high speed and low cost (Martens,
et al., 2017). The technology eliminates delays, minimizes wastage, and ensures proper
allocation and utilization of resources, thus reducing the overall cost of construction. As 3D

Construction 3D Printing 18
printing continues to advance and the cost of 3D printers come down, the technology is expected
to reduce the cost and time of construction by over 50% and 75% respectively.
Issues affecting the Implementation of 3D printing in the Construction Industry
Adoption of 3D printing in the construction industry is still affected by numerous issues.
Some of these issues include the following: lack of proper policies and a regulatory framework,
such as building codes for 3D printed structures (Wu, et al., 2018); the high cost of acquiring,
operating and maintaining 3D printers; limited materials that can be used by the technology;
difficulty of transporting 3D printers to and from the site due to their large size (Sakin &
Kiroglu, 2017); slow speed of 3D printers; lack of organizational support and commitment;
inadequate awareness about 3D printing technology, its potential and benefits; lack of adequate
professionals with the desired knowledge and skills to provide advice and consultancy services
about 3D printing construction projects; low familiarity with the technology; and some resistance
from companies using conventional construction methods.
Suitable Applications of 3D Printing in the Construction Industry
Current Applications of 3D Printing
3D printing is suitable for different construction projects including buildings, bridges, canals,
etc. Below are some of the construction projects that have been completed using 3D printing:
 10 single-storey 3D printed houses built by Winsun, a Chinese company, in 2015 at a
cost of $5,000 per house. The houses were built using 3D printer with cement-based
mixture with glass fiber and construction waste. They were completed within 24 hours.

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 A 12m long and 1.75m wide pedestrian 3D bridge built in Madrid, Spain in 2016. After
designing the bridge, a 3D printer was used to deposit materials precisely to the
designated areas to build the bridge.
 A canal built in Amsterdam in 2014. The canal was built using 3D printer with plastic
material.
 A single storey residential house built by Apis Cor in Russia in 2018. A mobile printer
was used to build the house within 24 hours
 3D printed office on top of Emirates Towers in Dubai. It was completed in 17 days with
18 people.
 Four-bedroom 3D printed house built in Nantes France in 2018. The house was printed
within 54 hours although it took contractors four more months to install the roof,
windows and doors. The walls were constructed using BatiPrint 3D robot guided by laser.
The technology can also be used in constructing shelters for people affected by disasters such as
earthquakes, floods, tornadoes and wildfires.
Future Applications of 3D Printing
3D printing is one the technologies that will significantly influence the future of
construction industry (Berman, 2012). If adopted successfully, this technology is capable of
revolutionizing the industry by reducing construction materials usage, minimizing construction
time, decreasing construction cost, reducing construction costs and lowering environmental
impacts (Uppala & Tadikamalla, 2017). This technology can be used in the future for the
construction of almost all structures including buildings, roads, bridges, dams, canals, retaining
walls, stadia, swimming pools, skyscrapers, tunnels and railways, among others. The main future
application of 3D printing will be to use the technology to build large-scale, whole single-unit

Construction 3D Printing 20
structures integrated with all the necessary elements instead of separate components. For
example, the 3D printer will be able to print a whole house in a single run with all its elements
such as plumbing and electrical services.
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