Human Error and Computer Error: Causes, Effects, and Attribution

This study explores the relationship between human error and computer error, analyzing factors contributing to computer-related abuses and the effects of attributions of failures on satisfaction. It investigates normal human assumptions about errors and who to blame. The research aims to understand the reasons behind computer errors and how to avoid them. The study includes a literature review, research questions, and objectives.

Contents
Abstract.................................................................................................................................................2
Chapter 1...............................................................................................................................................2
Introduction:......................................................................................................................................2
Background:.......................................................................................................................................3
Aim:...................................................................................................................................................3
Research Questions:..........................................................................................................................3
Research objectives:..........................................................................................................................3
Chapter 2...............................................................................................................................................4
Literature review and problems........................................................................................................4
Examples of computer system errors....................................................................................................8
Malfunctions......................................................................................................................................8
Types of error....................................................................................................................................8
Security Breaches..............................................................................................................................9
Chapter 3: research methodology.......................................................................................................10
Human Assumptions on system......................................................................................................10
Degree of technical knowledge.......................................................................................................11
Attribute blame for failures.............................................................................................................11
Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................12
References...........................................................................................................................................13

Abstract
The term “Human error or Computer error” can simply be defined as an error
which made by a human/computer. In fact, Computer error is an explanation of
malfunctions, unintended consequents from operating a system. There are many
factors that cause a person to have an error due to the unwanted error,
malfunctions, security breaches, virus, programming error, human error. The
aim of this paper is to investigate the relationship of human error/computer
error, factors to computer related abuses, analyse effects of attributions of
failures on satisfaction and Normal human assumptions about how things work
and where to attribute blame for failures. The paper beings by computer-relating
to errors technical perspectives. Surveys are done in respect to know normal
human assumptions and attribution about errors to blame whom?

Chapter 1
Introduction:
Computers have extensively been used since there evolution. Almost all fields
such as engineering, medical, education, teaching as well as government
organizations make use of this technology. Computers were invented to make
life easier and this electronic gadget has been successful in transforming lives.
The applicability of computers is not only restricted to official work but it has
shown its potential in the sphere of entertainment as well. Owing to the high
level of precision along with the accuracy, computers can complete tasks with
perfection taking very less time. The only problem with this is that abrupt
disruptions in the system can have an adverse effect (Sridharan et al. 2015).
When the humans do not get the desired result from computers they blame the
system or maybe themselves to have failed in work process. In day to day life
computers have made their presence felt and any disruptions affects humans
badly (Xu and Zhou 2015). Human errors can be intentional or may be
accidental. The errors caused by humans can be due to ignorance, lack of
appropriate knowledge and experience. There are situations where even the
person having adequate knowledge of operating the computer system commits
errors. An Issue Arises unexpectedly or expectedly that cause to prevent system
stop or not work properly as desired to do is called Error. Which humiliates
users to think what’s wrong, and they directly blame to the system or
themselves. System does not have direct relation with physics of working.
Computer system are designed to make people work ease, reliable, and meet a
desired specified work. Sometime system is not able to fulfil need as specified
due to an error which is generated by wrong coded programme, hardware
problems, hardware design, or human wrong interaction, or human wrong
understanding of operation of system. Hypothesis of study, we assume that
attribution of failure affects people’s satisfaction, which generates negative
effects and sensation of injustice, but we forgot that the creator/developer of the
computer system is human (Schwartz et al. 2017). To avoid such human errors
the system designers and the operators must be well aware of the human errors
problems and design mechanisms accordingly so that the errors occurring can
be copied. Computer-system related crime comprises of factors such as
opportunity, absence of guardianship and motivation. Opportunity in this case
relates to the increase in the use of digital technology (Reason 2016). The report
will be discussing on the fact that whether the defects or disruptions caused in
the computer system can be attributed to the technology or human errors have
equal contribution in the same (Woods et al. 2017). The discussion will be

including a survey being done on the same, the results of which will help
understand the fact better.
Background:
Aim:
The primary objective of the study is to consider the faults being faced by
humans in the computer systems and who can be attributed for the errors- the
humans or the technology. The study will try to come into a conclusion to the
question by analysing whether it is the humans or the technology having
maximum faults in the errors that are happening.
Research Questions:
1) What are the possible reasons behind the computer errors?
2) What is the primary cause of the error in the computer system?
3) How can the available resources be used to avoid the computer errors?
4) Who should be blamed for such errors and why?
Research objectives:
The following are the main objectives of this research:
1) To find out the reasons behind errors in the computer systems.
2) To find out the main cause of the errors in the system.
3) To consider how the available resources can be used to avoid such errors.
4) To find out who should be blamed for such errors and the reason behind the
same.

Chapter 2
Literature review and problems
Use of computers in different fields is topic of interest as this is backed by
various reasons. Dating back computers were the only medium through which
Internet could be used. The combination of computer system and internet has
brought various improvements in the lives of humans in spheres such as
education, medical, engineering and many other fields (Smith et al. 2016). The
technology has been a vital part of human lives since its evolution. These
technologies have been already included in the society as parameters for
deciding standard of living. The errors in the computer systems are a concern as
errors disrupt the system and result in loss of data and important informations.
As per the research done by Silberschatz, Gagne and Galvin (2018), there are
many such computer applications which are complicated and errors on the
programs developed on the same cannot be avoided. Human errors can also be
attributed for the disruptions in the computer systems. Human errors can be
explained as malfunctions along with unintentional consequents in operating a
computer system. There exist many such factors that relate human errors to
errors in the computer system (Frese and Keith 2015). As per the research done
by Card (2018), there is a basic difference in between errors and mistakes.
Errors are divided into two types namely slips and lapses. The slips refer to the
failures in case of execution such as attaching a wrong document to an email id
while lapses refer to the failure of memory storage such as forgetting to logoff
the computer system. Mistakes on the other hand are the outcomes of
inappropriate planning such as replying to a mail that has been received from a
certain reasonable source (Maurino et al. 2017). As per the research done by
Kheir (2018), the errors of the computer system caused by the humans can be
categorized into some of the types that are mentioned below:
1) Skill-based- These include the general automatic procedural or the
subconscious tasks such as typing a security password.
2) Rule-based- These include the tasks that are approached by the patterns
which match from a certain set of intrinsic problem solving rules. For example a
computerised message from the bank is sent a reply.
3) Knowledge-based- These include those tasks that are approached by
reasoning from the firstly applied principles in cases when the rules as well as
the experience are not applicable (Friedman, B. and Kahn Jr 2017). For example
using the computer system of the corporate premises in order to sent sensitive
information home not realizing the fact that the computer networking system is
not secure.

Many reasons can be there which can lead to computer system errors and
humans being the reason for these errors have high chances or possibility. As
per the research done by Kusic (2018), technological faults in the computer
system can be the outcome of defects in the hardware related to the memory
subsystem. This is the general problem that is prevalent in case of intrinsic
problems of the computer system. The soft error has become a primary threat to
the highly reliable computer systems. Soft errors which are left unchecked can
induce failure of the computer systems. Errors related to the memory hardware
of systems serve as a source of important threat to the computer system
reliability. As per the research done by Silberschatz Gagne and Galvin (2018),
these kinds of errors are some of the significant factors that contribute to the
failures of the computer system. Managing the errors arising due to memory
hardware serve as an important element in the development of an overall system
reliability strategy. As per the research done by Sridharan et al. (2015), studies
are being performed to analyze the impact of the memory hardware related
errors on the security and reliability of the computer system. Human operator
errors are the source of data losing as well as system failures. There are
examples form the past such as in the year 2001, Microsoft went through a
24hour disorder in its Web properties owing to human errors in the process of
configuring the name resolution system (Neff and Nagy 2016). The problems in
computer systems are of many different types and these are either technological
based or human errors. Human errors are more dangerous than the technological
ones but both need to be avoided in order to save the system from disruptions.
Peoples Trust on computer system
Peoples trust on the computer system can be realised by the wide applications of
the system in different fields. Some of the applications of the computer system
in different fields are given below to understand how this technology has taken
an important part of human lives (Norman 2017). Humans are making use of the
computer system for doing their work in less time and with perfection as well.
Computers are far more correct than humans in case of calculations and
handling of complex data.
1) Role of computer systems in the embedded systems- Embedded systems find
applications in controlling, monitoring or helping in the process of operation of
equipments (Lee and Seshia 2016). Software is embedded into the hardware that
makes a certain system appropriate for an application. These embedded systems
have the potential to interact with the world as well by making use of sensors
and actuators hence referred to as interactive systems (Sriram and

Bhattacharyya 2018). Embedded systems are used by designers, analysts,
engineers and managers to get a better understanding of the behaviour of the
systems.
2) Role of Computer in Simulation- Computer simulation is meant to show the
behavioural nature of a specific system. It refers to running of the model of any
system. This makes use of abstract models that are required to simulate a system
(Kheir 2018). These are used in various spheres such as in pilot training
academy, modelling car crashes to analyse the safety mechanisms, in robotics
and many more.
3) Role of Computer in Artificial Intelligence- Artificial Intelligence is an
evolving field in computer science. The primary aim of artificial intelligence is
developing machines that would possess the intelligence of a human (Osoba and
Welser 2017). Artificial Intelligence finds its applications in areas such as
automated customer support, personalized shopping experience, healthcare,
smart cars, drones, travel and navigation and many more.
4) Role of Computer in Defence- In the area of Defence, computers are made
use of in tracking incoming missiles that target to destroy them. Computers are
extensively used in planes, ships and tanks to target the enemy forces as well as
to diagnose problems in the platforms (Kusic 2018). Computer system is made
use of to keep records and important documents.
5) Role of Computer in Medical- Computer system has got the trust of the
medical department as well. Doctors make use of computer systems to conduct
surgeries. Patients’ information is kept in an organized and efficient way by
making use of the computer system (Simonik et al. 2015). Patients’ medical
history is also important in treating diseases and computerized system can help
maintain records in compact form.
6) Role of Computer in Biometric Systems- Computer systems finds
applications in biometric systems as well. Biometric systems is used almost in
all offices may be corporate or government as automated method of identifying
physiological or behavioural characteristics of the persons trying to enter any
premises. Biometric is used in time and attendance systems, biometric safes and
locks are also being used, biometric login systems and many more (Kletz 2018)
.
7) Role of computers in banks- Computer systems are used in banks for various
purposes such as record keeping as well as to maintain accounts of the
customers. ATMs are the most vivid example of usage of computer systems in
banks.

8) Role of Computer in E-Commerce- E-commerce also known as electronic
trade or e-business. E-commerce platforms make use of computer systems and
internet to conduct business on the online platform. The users of the e-
commerce platform make use of it to sell, buy as well as exchange products and
services through the medium of computer network.
9) Role of Computer in Weather Forecasting- Weather forecasting applies
science and technology in order to make predictions of the atmospheric
conditions. Computer systems in this case perform complicated calculations that
help in forecasting the upcoming conditions of weather in a particular area.
Owing to the speed and the accuracy of the computer systems it finds its
applications in the meteorological departments.
10) Role of Computer in Entertainment- Computer systems have made their
presence felt in the field of entertainment as well. The technology is made used
in case of watching videos as well as streaming of videos, downloading music,
games, playing video games and many more.
11) Role of Computer in Education- Computer system has been a revolution in
this sphere. The students get variety of informations from the internet.
Computers serve as a medium for the distant education platform. Computer
systems are made use of to store educational contents and volumes of
informations regarding the same.
12) Role of Computer in Architecture- Computer system are made use of in
case of designing as well as manufacturing books, magazines, buildings,
newspapers and many more (Bogatyrev and Bogatyrev 2015).
Thus form the above discussion it is clear that it is peoples trust on the computer
system that they are being extensively used in various fields. There reliability
can be understood from their usage in crucial fields such as defence and
medical.
Examples of computer system errors
Malfunctions
The errors make the computer system unresponsive resulting in loss of data.
Some of the common technological errors in the computer system are as
follows:
1) Blue Screen of Death (BSoD)- The Blue Screen of Death or BSoD is one of
the common computer errors which generally occur in almost every computer
system. This makes the computer system unresponsive for some time after
which the screen turns blue and an error message is shown that is

indecipherable (Sundar and Kumar 2016). The system restarts after that and
there are high chances of the data being worked upon to get lost.
2) Windows is slow in the process of booting- A computer system that takes a
lot of time booting is a common problem. This problem can be fixed easily.
There could be many possible reasons for slow booting of the computer system
but majority of the times the cause is too many of the programs trying to get
loaded at the same time in the background when Windows is starting.
3) Problem in installing applications- This is another one of the common
problem in the computer systems. The primary reason behind this is low space
in the hard drive. This means that the hard drive is full and thus the application
cannot fit in.
4) Updating problems in Windows- Keeping Windows updated is important to
fight from security threats. Problems are encountered when installing updates
and these generally fail due to lack of hard drive space. It often happens that a
certain program is intervening in the process of update resulting in the failure of
the installation (Shan, Azim and Neamtiu 2016).
5) Apps behaving badly- Another most common scenario of malfunction is
when the apps installed act strangely (Cho et al. 2017). Sudden closing of the
pages or a warning showing that the page is not responding is generally
encountered.
Types of error
There are various errors in a computer system and some are as follows:
1) No Video Output- This is the error which is encountered when starting the
PC nothing is on the screen but the LED indicator present is displaying yellow
colour.
2) The Operating System goes on loading- The Computer System starts and
boots but when the operating system is indulged in loading it, it doesn’t get
loaded and takes a long time (Feitelson 2015).
3) Many of the pop up windows getting displayed on the standard mode- This
generally happens when the user is trying to switch off the internet connection.
This is termed as aftershock virus and keeps on running even after the system is
disconnected from the internet.
4) Safe mode not functioning- This happens when the user is trying to go to
safe mode but rather a list of files are displayed in the Command Prompt style.

Apart from the above said common errors computer errors can also be due to
the various Operating Systems installed in them. These are classified as follows:
i) System errors- These are considered to be as the dangerous errors and these
types of errors occur due to the malfunctioning of the hardware components or
certain corrupted operating system modules.
ii) Runtime errors- These errors are caused by the corrupted or the
malfunctioning system files or some sort of software executables.
iii) Stop errors- These errors are caused by corrupted hardware that includes
malfunctioning of the modules of RAM as well as bad sectors on the hard disks.
iv) POST code errors- POST code errors are caused by the hardware
components that malfunction and these have a characteristic beep sounds that
comes from the internal speaker of the motherboard.
Security Breaches
Computer systems as discussed above have their applications in many fields and
in these fields the primary work of the computer system is storing volumes of
informations. These informations are sensitive and their privacy needs to be
taken care off. As per the research done by Silva-Martinez (2016), there have
been increasing numbers of data breaches recently and thus organizations are
investing a lot on storing their data (Angst, Block, D'arcy and Kelley 2017). The
attacks on the online databases are intentional and thus these are human errors
related to the computer systems. Some of the attacks that are responsible for
data breaches are as follows:
a) Direct-access attacks- The direct-access attacks are those that are done by
unauthorized users who gain access to the computer system and mishandle data
and informations stored in the system. These attacks compromise with the
security of the system by modifying the operating systems, installing software
worms, converting the listening devices and key loggers. This happens even
after the computer system is protected with standard security measures (Mendes
and Vilela 2017). This is done by booting another operating system or such tool
from bootable media like CD-ROM. To prevent these attacks disk encryption
and trusted platform modules are made use of.
b) Eavesdropping- This refers to listening to private conversations in between
the hosts on a network (Wheatley, Maillart and Sornette 2016). There have been
such instances where programs for example Carnivore and Naruslnsight were
used by NSA and FBI to eavesdrop on systems of the internet service providers.

c) Spoofing- Spoofing refers to the activity in which a person or may be a
program accesses the informations by falsifying data of some other person or
program (Martin, Borah and Palmatier 2017).
d) Phishing- This refers to gathering sensitive informations that include
usernames, passwords, card details and many more secretly (Dewa and
Maglaras 2016). These data are collected by spoofing of email or instant
messaging and this involves directing the users to enter their details on fake
webpage which looks like the original webpage.
e) Tampering- This refers to malicious modifications been done to the products.
These are termed as “Evil Maid”. The examples of these kinds of attacks are
security services planting of surveillance capability into the routers.
In order to prevent security breaches cryptography is being used. Cryptographic
solutions have been useful to some extent to prevent security breaches (Gupta,
Agrawal and Yamaguchi 2016). Encryption is effective in saving sensitive data
from getting misused. Still there are loopholes in this technology as well
because there are instances where even strong encryption could prevent data
breach but it certainly can act as a block to the cyber attackers from accessing
sensitive data once the data is stolen, thereby helping in mitigating the risks.
Chapter 3: research methodology
Human Assumptions on system
Humans have accepted the technology as one of the greatest innovations.
The computer system has been considered to be as the technology that makes
work easier. Complicated calculations and complex programming can be done
by the use of computers. The technology has established itself in almost all
spheres. The reliability of humans on the computer system can be well
understood form some of the responses where people are saying they believe
that computer generated outcomes are always correct. There are some denying
the same but still the results shows that people are highly dependent on the
computer system. From the survey it can be said that maximum of them are
acquainted with the operation of the computer system and they even have
knowledge about operating systems. The people participating in the survey
belong to different professions and they have their own reasons and ways to use
computer system.
Degree of technical knowledge
From the survey conducted among 26 persons the responses suggest that
maximum of them are well acquainted with the computer system. It is clear that
the percentage of people having knowledge of the basics is only 19.2%. They

are well aware of the operating system they are working on and with the updates
of the operating system as well. The survey shows that majority of them have
encountered certain sort of errors such as run time errors, system errors, boot
errors, compilation errors and different such errors (Soja and Soja 2017). The
participants have knowledge about the computer system as they could answer
about which operating system they are using and that they read the user manual
as well as the terms and conditions before making use of any operating system
(Strauch 2017). The technical knowledge on the participants depends on the fact
whether they can identify the errors themselves or are they able to find out
solutions to the errors on their own. The survey shows that some of the
participants could spot the error by themselves and even resolved it on their
own. Some are of the opinion that they were not able to detect the errors and
resolve it. Many are there who could make use of you tube videos to spot the
solution of the error and handle the error all by themselves. The last option
when the error could not be resolved was to consult an expert. This shows that
people are aware of the errors of the computer system and they are acquainted
with the solutions as well.
Attribute blame for failures
The results of the survey show that the computer generated errors
are being attributed to the humans mainly. Though people have considered the
technological errors but they are of the opinion that humans are the main
contributors to these errors (Mohammed et al. 2018). The human errors can be
intentional or unintentional as well. Intentional errors are the data breaches
happening around and unintentional errors occur due to lack of knowledge,
mishandling, lack of attention at work and many more (Crook 2018). Some of
the responses reveal that the errors can be attributed to the humans as they are
the ones behind the invention of the computer system. The developers are
responsible for errors in the Operating System and they should be designing the
variants of operating system so as to make it error free. Some are of the opinion
that as the computer system is an electronic gadget technological errors are a
part of it. Breakdown of the system is part of the work and it cannot be blamed
on the humans. Humans have made these systems but above all these are
machines and cannot be fully relied upon. There can be instances of breakdown
the cause of which is not even known to the user operating the same. There are
some common reasons as well such as for social media and gaming. The
businessman using the computer system shows that they rely on the system for
their businesses which in turn proves the reliability of humans on the computer
system. The reliability of humans on the technology can also be seen from the
fact that the teachers use the internet sources to collect information (McIlwraith

2016). The survey conducted shows that maximum of the people are aware that
user manual and associated terms and conditions must be read properly before
using any of the variants of operating system. The intentional errors made by
humans are far more dangerous than the unintentional ones. The intentional
errors are serious attacks on the computer system that disrupt the systems as
these are planned and are done by those who are well acquainted with the
technicalities of the system (Mittelstadt et al. 2016). Data breaches are examples
of intentional human errors and there are instances where companies such as
Facebook suffered from these kinds of intentional errors. There also have been
some software system countermeasures that are used to avoid these kinds of
errors. Human errors that lead to disruptions in the computer systems are
capricious and these have serious consequences rather than the technical errors.
Motivation in turn depends on the mindset of criminal tendencies such as greed,
adventure or revenge.
Conclusion
From the above report it can be concluded that computer generated errors
have technological as well as human errors in them. The survey says that human
errors are dangerous and these are intentional as well as planned. Technological
errors can sometimes be dealt with and data retrieved but in case of human
errors there are huge disruptions. The human errors can give rise to many such
situations where privacy of the data leaked and the data of the users is misused
to accomplish tasks. Thus the computed generated errors can be majorly
attributed to the humans and their intervention in systems to meet their own
requirements.

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