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COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES OF ENGLISH SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL) EMPLOYEES By HT TENG MINOR DISSERTATION Submitted in partial of the requirements of the degree MAGGISTER COMMERCIAL COMMUNICATION WORKERS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG Supervisor: Dr. D Groenewald 2015 a Abstract Despite the substantial predominance of ESL (English Second Language) employees over native English language speakers in the South African workplace, there is not a good understanding of the communication challenges these people face in

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a
COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES OF ENGLISH SECOND
LANGUAGE (ESL) EMPLOYEES
By
HT TENG
MINOR DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree
MAGISTER COMMERCII
In
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
in the
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
Supervisor: Dr. D Groenewald
2015

Abstract
Despite the substantial predominance of ESL (English Second Language) employees
over native English language speakers in the South African workplace, there is not a
good understanding of the communication challenges these people face in the course
of their working lives. Limited language skills lead to a wide variety of communication
challenges for ESL and LEP (Limited English Proficient) workers, both at a personal
as well as an organisational level in the workplace. From the findings presented in this
research, it is evident that both English proficiency level and the extent of the
communication challenges experienced can be addressed to facilitate the rate at
which language skills impede ESL employees’ integration into an organisation from
the start of their working careers to the present time. Therefore, one can conclude that
every effort, from either individuals or organisations, counts in developing their
language and communication competency.

Declaration of original work
I certify that the minor dissertation submitted by me for the degree of Master of
Commerce (Business Management) at the University of Johannesburg is my
independent work and has not been submitted before for a degree at any other
University.
HUNG-TING TENG
(NAME)

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT .............................................................................................. 3
1.3 RESEARCH PURPOSE, OBJECTIVES AND PROPOSITION ................................................ 4
1.4 OVERVIEW OF LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 5
1.5 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................. 7
1.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ....................................................................................... 7
1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................... 9
1.8 OUTLINE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................ 9
1.9 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................. 11
2.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 11
2.2 ROLE OF COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE .............................................................. 11
2.3 ENGLISH LANGUAGE USAGE IN SOUTH AFRICA ......................................................... 16
2.3.1 STAGES OF STUDYING ........................................................................................................ 18
2.3.2 STAGE OF WORKING ........................................................................................................... 20
2.4 COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES OF ESL WORKERS ................................................... 21
2.4.1 ‘LOST IN TRANSLATION’ ....................................................................................................... 21
2.4.2 CAREER CONSTRAINTS ....................................................................................................... 23
2.4.3 LANGUAGE SEGREGATION WITHIN THE ORGANISATION .......................................................... 25
2.4.4 COMMUNICATION GAP AMONG ESL WORKERS ..................................................................... 26
2.5 OVERCOMING COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES .......................................................... 27
2.5.1 ENGLISH LITERACY PROGRAMMES AND TRAINING ................................................................. 29
2.5.2 FREQUENT USE AND PRACTICE OF ENGLISH ......................................................................... 31
2.5.3 IMPROVING HOME LANGUAGE LITERACY ............................................................................... 32
2.5.4 USE OF NON-VERBAL TOOLS ............................................................................................... 33
2.5.5 PRACTICE OF MULTI-CULTURAL MANAGEMENT ..................................................................... 34
2.6 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..................................................................... 37
3.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 37
3.2 RESEARCH APPROACH AND DESIGN ......................................................................... 37
3.3 SAMPLING.............................................................................................................. 39
3.4 DATA COLLECTION ................................................................................................. 40
3.5 DATA ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................... 43
3.5.1 DATA VALIDITY ................................................................................................................... 44
3.5.2 DATA RELIABILITY ............................................................................................................... 45
3.6 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 46
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS .............................................................................. 48

4.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 48
4.2 RESPONSE RATE .................................................................................................... 49
4.3 DEMOGRAPHICAL RESULTS ..................................................................................... 50
4.4 COMPARISON OF EDUCATIONAL LEVELS ................................................................... 53
4.5 COMPARISON OF DURATION OF ENGLISH-BASED EDUCATION ..................................... 55
4.6 COMPARISON WITH ENGLISH-BASED WORK EXPERIENCE........................................... 58
4.7 COMPARISON AT DIFFERENT TIME POINTS ................................................................ 60
4.8 OTHER FINDINGS .................................................................................................... 63
4.9 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ....................................................................................... 66
4.10 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 68
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ......................................................................................... 71
5.1 MAJOR FINDINGS .................................................................................................... 72
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................................. 75
5.3 RECOMMENDED FUTURE RESEARCH ........................................................................ 78
REFERENCE LIST ......................................................................................................... 79
APPENDIX A- LETTER TO SURVEY PARTICIPANTS ............................................................ 88
APPENDIX B- SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ......................................................................... 89
APPENDIX C- SAMPLE POPULATION ............................................................................... 95

List of Tables
TABLE 1:1 SOUTH AFRICA HOME LANGUAGE BREAKDOWN AND MOVEMENT ................................................. 2
TABLE 2:1 2008 NIDS SELF-ASSESSED ADULT READING & WRITING ABILITY IN ENGLISH .............................. 17
TABLE 2:2 JOB PERFORMANCE OF LEP WORKERS VS ENGLISH-SPEAKING WORKERS ................................ 23
TABLE 4:1 RESPONSE RATE ..................................................................................................................... 49
TABLE 4:2: AVERAGE RESPONSE RATE IN EACH SECTION ......................................................................... 49
TABLE 4:3 NATIONALITY AND RACE GROUPS COMPOSITION ....................................................................... 50
TABLE 4:4 LANGUAGE COMPOSITION ........................................................................................................ 50
TABLE 4:5 HIGHER EDUCATION PROFILES ................................................................................................. 51
TABLE 4:6 AREAS OF EMPLOYMENT .......................................................................................................... 51
TABLE 4:7 DURATION OF ENGLISH EDUCATION, WORK EXPERIENCE AND ENGLISH WORK EXPERIENCE ....... 52
TABLE 4:8 AVERAGE ENGLISH COMPETENCY LEVELS, COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE CHALLENGES IN
COMPARISON TO EDUCATIONAL LEVEL .............................................................................................. 53
TABLE 4:9 AVERAGE ENGLISH COMPETENCY LEVELS, COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE CHALLENGES IN
COMPARISON TO DURATION OF ENGLISH-BASED EDUCATION .............................................................. 56
TABLE 4:10 AVERAGE ENGLISH COMPETENCY LEVELS, COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE CHALLENGES
COMPARED WITH ENGLISH-BASED WORK EXPERIENCE ....................................................................... 58
TABLE 4:11 ENGLISH PROFICIENCY LEVELS FROM COMMENCEMENT OF EMPLOYMENT (B) UNTIL THE
PRESENT (P) ................................................................................................................................... 61
TABLE 4:12 DEGREE OF HELPFULNESS OF PERSONAL ACTIONS TO OVERCOME COMMUNICATION
CHALLENGES................................................................................................................................... 64
TABLE 4:13 DEGREE OF HELPFULNESS OF IMPROVED ENGLISH PROFICIENCY IN WORKPLACE ...................... 65
TABLE 4:14 ESL EMPLOYEE SUPPORT FOR FURTHER EDUCATION & TRAINING ............................................. 65

List of Figures
FIGURE 2:1 INTEGRATED COMMUNICATION MODEL .................................................................................... 12
FIGURE 2:2 COMMUNICATION CHANNEL RICHNESS SCALE ......................................................................... 14
FIGURE 4:1 AVERAGE ENGLISH COMPETENCY LEVEL, COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE CHALLENGES
COMPARED TO EDUCATIONAL LEVEL ................................................................................................. 54
FIGURE 4:2 AVERAGE ENGLISH COMPETENCY LEVEL, COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE CHALLENGES
COMPARED WITH DURATION OF ENGLISH-BASED EDUCATION ............................................................. 56
FIGURE 4:3 AVERAGE ENGLISH COMPETENCY LEVELS, COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE CHALLENGES IN
COMPARISON TO ENGLISH-BASED WORK EXPERIENCE ....................................................................... 59
FIGURE 4:4 AVERAGE ENGLISH COMPETENCY LEVELS, COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE CHALLENGES AT
DIFFERENT TIME POINTS .................................................................................................................. 61

1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
South Africa has become known as the rainbow nation because of the rich cultural
diversity of its population, which originated from many parts of the globe as settlers
and immigrants over a period of more than 350 years. The country's democratic
constitution recognises 11 official languages, all of which are guaranteed equal status
(South African Government, 2004). English is the language most commonly used in
South Africa, especially among the educated, and has become the primary means of
communication in government, business and commerce, and among individuals from
varied linguistic and ethnic backgrounds (Gough, 2009).
According to the 2011 National Census report (StatsSA, Census 2011, 2012), isiZulu
is the mother tongue of 22.7% of South Africa's population, followed by isiXhosa at
16%, Afrikaans at 13.5%, English at 9.6%, Setswana 8% and Sesotho 7.6%. The
remaining five official languages are used by less than 5% of the population. Despite
the fact that English ranks fourth on the list, when comparing statistical data from the
2011 Census and the 2001 Census (StatsSA, 2012) one notices that English had the
highest growth rate of 1.40% as the language spoken at home in the country, whereas
many official languages had a growth rate of less than 0.5% or even went into
negative growth. Regardless of this above average growth, as depicted in Table 1:1,
what is significant is that the mother tongue for the majority of South Africans, 90.4%
of the population, is a language other than English.

2
Table 1:1 South Africa Home Language Breakdown and Movement
Language
2001 2011 Movement
Number % Number % Number %
Afrikaans 5 983 426 13.30% 6 855 082 13.50% 871 656 0.20%
English 3 673 203 8.20% 4 892 623 9.60% 1 219 420 1.40%
isiNdebele 711 821 1.60% 1 090 223 2.10% 378 402 0.50%
isiXhosa 7 907 153 17.60% 8 154 258 16% 247 105 -1.60%
isiZulu 10 677 305 23.80% 11 587 374 22.70% 910 069 -1.10%
Sepedi 4 208 980 9.40% 4 618 576 9.10% 409 596 -0.30%
Sesotho 3 555 186 7.90% 3 849 563 7.60% 294 377 -0.30%
Setswana 3 677 016 8.20% 4 067 248 8% 390 232 -0.20%
SiSwati 1 194 430 2.70% 1 297 046 2.50% 102 616 -0.20%
Tshivenda 1 021 757 2.30% 1 209 388 2.40% 187 631 0.10%
Xitsonga 1 992 207 4.40% 2 277 148 4.50% 284 941 0.10%
Sign
language
n/a n/a 234 655 0.50% 234 655 0.50%
Other 217 293 0.50% 828 258 1.60% 610 965 1.10%
TOTAL 44 819 777 100% 50 961 442 100% 6 141 665 0%
(Source: Census 2011)
Further contributing to the linguistic diversity of the country is the steady influx of
immigrants into South Africa. According to the South African Demographics Survey
2009/2010 report, there were approximately 64 000 international immigrants to South
Africa between 1994 and 2004 (SAIRR, South Africa Survey 2009/2010-
Demographic, 2010).
In the 2011 National Census, published by Statistics SA (2012:55), there is an
economically active population of approximately 18.7 million people in South Africa.
Therefore, extrapolating from the mother tongue statistics in Table 1:1, this would
imply that a total of 16.9 million (90.4%) employees in all corporate sectors across the
country are English Second Language (ESL) speakers who are required to use
English for performing tasks and communicating on a daily basis. Given the

3
dominance of English in South African workplaces, a better understanding of the
implications of this phenomenon is required. The problems, objectives, proposition,
literature and methodology overview, ethical considerations as well as limitations of
the research are explored in this chapter.
1.2 Problem statement
Research conducted by Wambui, Wangombe, Muthura, Kamau and Jackson
(2013:213) on workforce diversity in Kenyan businesses, reveals that employees and
managers can experience difficulties in communicating with one another, when
organisations hire employees whose first language is neither English nor Kiswahili.
Language barriers are likely to cause communication difficulties which can lead to
confusion, frustration, fear, helplessness and anxiety for the affected individuals, as
pointed out by Dawson, Madera and Neal (2011:2). Bechan and Visser (2005:76)
found that in the South African banking environment the main cause of conflict in the
corporate environment is different communication styles, and the use of English as
the language of commerce has caused resentment within some cultural groups.
From the studies above, it is evident that given the predominance of ESL employees
in the South African workplace, using English as the only communication medium can
be a significant challenge for ESL employees in terms of speaking, listening, reading
and writing. Wambui et al. (2013:213) warn that misunderstandings and a decrease in
productivity are the likely results of communication difficulties. A better understanding
of the communication and language challenges perceived and experienced by ESL
employees in the work environment is therefore necessary.

4
If certain actions such as literacy education are implemented in the workplace for the
purpose of empowerment and transformation, doors of opportunities for employees
would be opened to provide them with the chance of a better future (Gallo, 2002).
Whether these actions would minimise the impact of communication challenges and
benefit both individuals and organisations is yet to be verified and will be explored in
this study.
1.3 Research purpose, objectives and proposition
The purpose of this study is to explore the communication and language challenges
perceived and experienced by ESL employees in the work environment. Although
communication and language abilities can be developed and improved over time an
understanding of the perceived challenges encountered by ESL employees during the
course of their working careers is necessary.
The primary objective is to investigate the language challenges perceived and
experienced by ESL employees in the working environment. Allied to this is the extent
to which language challenges change over time. As English proficiency levels are
closely associated with the degree of communication challenges faced by ESL
employees, it is therefore important to investigate the impact English proficiency
levels have on communication challenges encountered by ESL employees over the
course of their working careers. The secondary objectives are:
 to investigate the change of English proficiency during the course of the
working careers of ESL employees;

5
 to investigate the impact of the change in English proficiency levels on
language challenges experienced during the working careers of ESL
employees.
From the primary and secondary objectives described above, the following
proposition arises: namely that the communication challenges facing ESL employees
becomes less significant in the course of their working lives
1.4 Overview of literature review
Akmajian (2001:361) points out that using language successfully is a very complex
enterprise, especially for an adult who is trying to master a second language, and one
must be able to do more than know the language and produce and recognise
sentences in it. In their study on how communication takes place between cultures,
Anderson and Rasmussen (2004:231) identify language as the single most important
factor stating it is not just a technical competence that can be added to
communication.
According to Madera (2011:380), diversity adds a competitive advantage to
organisations as it creates a pool of talent from which potential leaders of industry can
emerge, making it possible to provide a variety of services that meet customers’
needs. For organisations attempting to create a diversified workplace, communication
barriers are considered to be the leading cause of problems (Wambui et al. 2013).
Insights into improving communication practices among employees and creating a
more inclusive and harmonious workplace environment are becoming crucial to
organisations (Madera, 2011). In the case of an English-language organisation that
hires ESL employees of other cultures, communication problems are likely to occur in

6
conversations between non-native English speakers or when non-standard English is
used to communicate (Grzega, 2006). The purpose of learning English is to be able to
communicate, to exchange information and ideas and to create social bonds with
others (Grzega, 2006).
Most of the research conducted to date primarily focuses on cultural diversity in the
South African workplace or on English literacy programmes in the South African
education system. The role of English proficiency in terms of the communicative
challenges it poses to ESL employees is a sub-topic in some research on cultural
diversity. It is therefore necessary to include a variety of studies from foreign
countries, as well as South Africa, in the literature review. The discussion of the
literature is related to communication between English First Language (EFL) and ESL
speakers as well as among ESL speakers, with specific focus on the following
concepts:
 The theoretical framework of a transactional communication model,
communication channels, linguistic communication and the role of language in
communication within the organisations.
 A brief overview of South African English proficiency in both study and work
environments.
 An examination of the communication challenges facing ESL workers, locally
and internationally, such as ‘lost in translation’, career constraints, language
segregation within an organisation and the communication gap between ESL
workers.
 How to overcome communication challenges, at a personal and organisational
level, by taking the following actions: English literacy programmes and training,

7
frequent use and practice of English, improving home language literacy and the
use of non-verbal tools and the practice of multicultural management.
1.5 Overview of research methodology
The research approach is determined by the research proposition outlined in this
chapter. It is intended to utilise a quantitative research paradigm following the
principles of positivist metatheory. The research proposition is empirical and
exploratory in nature.
A quantitative approach will be adopted for the research strategy. The target
population is ESL speakers in South Africa, however, the actual number of ESL
employees is not known. Convenient sampling will be used in which primary data is
collected from questionnaires administered to ESL employees at two organisations at
which the researcher was employed.
Data analysis involves a review of research objectives or hypotheses, coding and
cleansing data, computing descriptive statistics, assessing reliability and validity and
testing data against research objectives or hypotheses. Survey Monkey, a web-based
tool, will be used to facilitate coding and cleansing data. The data gathered is
therefore quantifiable and can be statistically analysed.
1.6 Ethical considerations
A number of measures will be taken to ensure the ethical requirements of the
research are met. These include:

8
 Use of an appropriate methodology and sampling strategy to address the aims
of the research problem and questions.
 Care will be taken to ensure that the questions in the assessment and
questionnaire are not leading, biased nor will in any way affect the sensitivities
of the respondents.
 Participation in the research is voluntary and all participants will be fully
informed of the purpose of the research and their rights by the researcher.
 Although the research will not be anonymous since the identities of all
participants are known to the researcher, it will be made clear that all data
collected from the research will be treated confidentially and only used for
research purposes.
 Names of participants, respondents or responding corporates will not be
disclosed.
 In terms of assessing whether the validity of the questions and they will
measure what is intended, and whether they will be reliable and yield
consistent results, it is this researcher’s firm intention that collected data will be
valid and reliable and not be tampered with in any way.
 In terms of assessing the validity of the questions, whether they measure what
is intended, are reliable and yield consistent results, the extent to which the
research supports the current literature will be evidence of its integrity, added
to which is this researcher’s contention that collected data will be stringently
managed and not be tampered with in any way.
 Once collected, the data will be analysed and findings fully disclosed and
reported.
 It is hoped that the interpretations, findings and conclusions will be accepted as
logical.

9
1.7 Limitations of the study
One of the limitations of this research is that the survey responses will be dependent
on the experiences of employees in the two organisations surveyed and may not be
applicable to all ESL employees in South Africa. The sample size of the research
study may also be seen as a limitation in drawing general conclusions about ESL
employees. The research study focuses on English as the primary medium of
communication in the workplace and broader aspects such as culture and other
demographic factors are excluded. In addition, the research sample is drawn from two
organisations at which the researcher worked. It is recognised that a link exists in
terms of the researcher himself being employed at both organisations at the time and
therefore, electronic questionnaires are utilised to eliminate potential contamination of
survey results.
1.8 Outline of the study
The research paper is divided into five chapters.
Chapter 1 provides an overview of the dissertation. This includes a background to the
study, the problem statement, objectives, and a description of the literature review,
research methodology to be adopted and the limitations of the study.
Chapter 2 gives a detailed literature review. The literature review focuses on language
and its role in communication, the communication challenges faced by ESL students
in South Africa, the communication challenges confronted by ESL employees in the
workplace internationally and in South Africa, and the actions that both employers and
ESL employees can take to overcome communication challenges.

10
Chapter 3 provides details of the research methodology selected, the sampling
procedure followed, data collection, analysis and validity.
Chapter 4 focuses on the analysis and interpretation of the data collected. It assesses
how the research objectives and proposition were addressed and provides a
comparison of the results with the literature analysis.
Chapter 5 documents the research findings, conclusion and a list of
recommendations.
1.9 Conclusion
This chapter has provided the background to the study. The primary and secondary
research objectives have been discussed in terms of how they will be treated in the
study. A brief introduction has been given to the literature on language and its role in
communication, with a particular focus on literature related to communication between
EFL and ESL speakers as well as among ESL speakers in South Africa and abroad.
Highlights of how the research is to be conducted are also included in the chapter.

11
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Communication is the sharing of meaning through the transmission of information
(Dibb, Simkin, Pride & Ferrell 2006). People rely on others to share their
understanding of a situation and this shared understanding facilitates communication
(Akmajian, 2001). The importance of communication to both an individual and an
organisation and the key role language plays in effective communication are
discussed in this chapter. Given the dominance of English in the South African
workplace as outlined in Chapter 1, the challenges ESL employees face and
suggested solutions are explored in this chapter.
2.2 Role of communication and language
The definition of communication in the Collins Online English dictionary is “the act or
an instance of communicating; the imparting or exchange of information, ideas, or
feelings” (Collins Online English Dictionary, n.d.). In an early model, communication
was viewed as purely a means of sending and receiving information (Narula, 2006).
This model was later expanded to the SMCR Model of Communication in which
additional contexts were added to make it a model of four parts: Source (S), Message
(M), Channel (C) and Receiver (R) (Narula 2006). A transactional view was then
added to the model which emphasised that individuals simultaneously engage in the
sending and receiving of messages (West & Turner, 2011). This integrated
communication model is presented in Figure 2:1

12
Figure 2:1 Integrated Communication Model
(Source: West & Turner 2011)
The integrated communication model is composed of eight elements (Robbins,
Judge, Odendaal, & Roodt 2009):
 The sender is the initiator or source who encodes the message in the course
of transmitting it.
 As a physical product, the message has verbal and/or non-verbal components
of language that are sent from the sender to the receiver, carrying an idea.
 The channel is the medium through which the coded message is carried (Dibb,
Simkin, Pride, & Ferrell 2006).
 The receiver is the recipient of the message who decodes it.
 Encoding is putting the sender’s idea into spoken language and giving it
meaning.
 Decoding is translating the sender’s message into something the receiver
understands while feedback is the verbal and non-verbal response from
receivers to a transmitted message.
 Noise is the communication “interference” that hinders the transmission or
distorts the clarity of the message.
Sender
(Source) Message Channel Receiver
Encoding Decoding
Feedback
Noise

13
Messages from senders are encoded and the receivers are required to interpret the
information received through their perceptions of it (Bateman & Snell, 2011). It is
important that senders understand their “target receivers” and use language that is
understandable (Dibb, Simkin, Pride & Ferrell, 2006). Comunication is two-way if
feedback is provided by the receiver. Where no feedback is involved, communication
is called “one-way”(Bateman & Snell, 2011). Without a level of understanding
between the sender and receiver of a message, communication can break down
because the message is delayed, distorted or not transmitted (Choudhary & Rathore,
2013).
There are many forms of communication channels within an organisation:
interpersonal, face-to-face communication, group communication, speaker-audience
communication, telephonic and written communication (Rizvi, 2005).The choice of
the channel depends on the complexity of the message and the “richness” of the
channel (Robbins et al., 2009).
The channel richness, also known as channel capacity, refers to the limit on the
volume of information that a communication channel can handle effectively (Dibb,
Simkin, Pride & Ferrell, 2006) and is determined by three factors: the ability to handle
multiple cues simultaneously, ability to facilitate rapid feedback and ability to be very
personal (Robbins et al., 2009). The greater the degree of complexity of the message,
the higher the richness of the channel needed and vice versa. It is noticeable that only
channels at the lower end of the scale, for example video conferencing, face-to-face
conversations and live speeches, are oral and involve non-verbal clues. The
higher-end channels involve more pure-language and fewer non-verbal elements. As
pointed out by Rizvi (2005:6), non-verbal clues play a significant role in oral
communication.

14
Figure 2:2 Communication Channel Richness Scale
(Source: Robbins et al., 2009:277)
Boden (quoted by Sheridan, 2007:320) believes that communication, like lifeblood,
both feeds into and is shaped by the structure of the organisation itself. People in
organisations communicate and through communication they achieve the work of the
organisation (Sheridan, 2007). Within the work environment, the key factors for
satisfactory job performance are inter-office communication, social interaction and
interpersonal communication (Fatt, 2001).
In the field of business, the foremost skill required is good communication as this will
determine an individual’s growth in the organisation (Bitla, 2013). The fundamental
component of job performance and managerial effectiveness is effective
communication because managers must be able to share ideas clearly and
convincingly and listen to others effectively (Bateman & Snell, 2011). In the case of
implementing transition and change within the organisation, Kleasen and Foster
(2002:206) suggest using communication channels that are positive, upbeat and
credible, and the greater the variety of channels of communication, the higher the
impact will be . For managers, effective and engaging communication is also a key
skill, especially during times of change and transition (Kleasen & Foster, 2002).

15
In marketing, ethnic backgrounds have a limited effect on brand usage, but language,
on the other hand, is a critical tool when giving meaning to brands (Seeco, 2010). In
the international workplace, professionals from different linguistic and socio-cultural
backgrounds are usually required to adopt a common language of communication
which is important for effective verbal or written communication (Regerson-Revell,
2010; Rizvi, 2005). Overall performance is positively associated with common
language in management and openness to language diversity (Lauring & Klitmoller,
2015). It must be kept in mind that language does not exist in isolation and is part of
the expression of culture through which people create their identity and that of their
community (Seeco, 2010).
Effective language skills are required for communication at micro- and macro- levels
in the workplace and fluency in language and accuracy of usage are required to make
oral presentations effective in verbal communication (Singh, 2012). However, using
language successfully is a very complex exercise, as anyone who, as an adult, has
tried to master a second language knows (Akmajian, 2001). The nuances, idioms and
humour of a language play a major role in influencing the intake of the messages and
the reception among targeted audiences (Seeco, 2010).
When Andersen and Rasmussen (2004:233) examined attitudes to the role of
language in the communication process in an organisation, they identified three
perspectives on language: (1) language as a barrier; (2) language as a facilitator; and
(3) language as a source of power. For a Spanish-speaking person attempting to read
an operational manual written in English, the language would be a barrier, a
well-known phenomenon identified in cross-cultural communication research
(Anderson & Rasmussen, 2004). In a situation where the speakers are not bilingual, it
is better to avoid the subtleties of the foreign language (Cullen & Parboteeah, 2005).

16
High-level proficiency in English is required for positions in multinational organisations
in the era of globalisation (Bitla, 2013) and numerous international business
representatives refer to English as a “tool” of communication (Ehrenreich, 2010). The
emergence of English as the lingua franca of international business over the past two
decades has been accompanied by an increased interest in issues relating to
language choice and use in the rapidly globalising business and professional world
(Evans, 2013). In the South African environment, English is the accepted language of
use and most respondents prefer English as their language of choice, “the common
language”, in the work environment (Bechan & Visser, 2005).
2.3 English language usage in South Africa
Posel and Zeller (2011) conducted a study of home and English language ability in
South Africa and thoroughly analysed the data on language proficiency in the 2008
National Income Dynamics Study (NIDS) which surveyed 28 000 individuals. It was
found that among the four major race groups in the country, the proportion of English
home language speakers is as follows: African 1%, Coloured 26.7%, Indian 91.5%
and White 40%. In terms of self-assessed reading and writing ability, it is notable that
the White population has the highest self-assessed level of good English reading and
writing skills at more than 95%, whereas the African population has the lowest
self-assessed level of good English reading and writing ability at less than 70%. The
results are summarised in Table 2:1. When analysing the data on the English reading
ability of Africans in the context of age groups, Posel and Zeller found that in 2008:
 The reported number of people reading very well in English in the younger age
group (between 15 to 30 years) is almost twice the number of the older group
(above 30 years).

17
 31% of members of the older group report no ability to read in English whereas
only 5% of the younger group report not being able to read in English.
Table 2:1 2008 NIDS self-assessed adult reading & writing ability in English
Reading Ability
African Coloured Indian White ALL
GOOD 68.1% 73.2% 93.5% 97.0% 72.2%
NOT GOOD 31.9% 26.8% 6.5% 3.0% 27.8%
TOTAL 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Writing Ability
African Coloured Indian White ALL
GOOD 66.9% 72.7% 94.0% 96.1% 71.1%
NOT GOOD 33.1% 27.3% 6.0% 3.9% 28.9%
TOTAL 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Note:
1. GOOD= “very well” and “fair”; NOT GOOD= “not well” and “not at all”
(Source: Posel and Zeller, 2011)
Posel and Zeller (2011:121) conclude that the data is, to a certain extent, consistent
with the socio-economic changes experienced since the end of apartheid in 1994.
Although, they admit that there is a systematic bias when reporting by age group, as
younger respondents are more likely to over-report their language ability than older
respondents, and this should be taken into account.
One could question whether this finding on self-assessed language ability is a true
reflection of South African adults in daily life. The ages of Posel and Zeller’s study
population is distributed over three stages: secondary education, tertiary education
and work. It would be important to gain a better understanding of ESL people learning
English at different stages of life.

18
2.3.1 Stages of studying
In the Language in Education Policy document released by the South African
Department of Education, it is compulsory for all students to take two languages as
school subjects (DOE, 1997). English is a compulsory subject at all schools, either as
a first or second language, and is the preferred medium of instruction in most schools
and tertiary institutions (Gough, 2009). Most of the students from the townships or
rural areas of South Africa begin learning English in the later years of primary school
and usually use their home language for communication with peers and teachers in in
general conversation. (Dreyer, 2010). English is treated as a foreign language in
certain rural areas and many teachers, who do not have high levels of English
proficiency, function mainly at the level of basic literacy (Stephen, Welman & Jordaan,
2004). As a result, ESL students enter tertiary education without being equipped with
the necessary level of English proficiency (Dreyer, 2010). By treating English as “just
another subject to be passed”, they fail to recognise the role of English proficiency as
a prerequisite for academic success (Stephen, Welman & Jordaan, 2004).
Stephen, Welman and Jordaan (2004:45) examine the relationship between English
proficiency and the academic performance of students in tertiary educational
institutions. They identify intelligence and English proficiency as the two primary
independent variables for academic performance and school matric results, whereas
secondary variables include media exposure, urbanisation, family circumstances,
parental status, school attended and African language proficiency. Stephen et al.
(2004:50) also found that Indian students score 20% higher in Matric English than
African students and perform 40% better academically than their African counterparts
at tertiary level. It is also noted that African students experience a higher level of
difficulty in the standard of work than Indian students (46.2% versus 29.4%) and have

19
a higher level of belief that improved English will help their performance than Indian
students do (71.8% versus 17.7%). This may contradict the findings of Posel and
Zeller’s study of the younger black population, but could support speculation that
younger respondents are more likely to inflate their language ability.
ESL students who often experience communication problems in speaking, listening,
reading and writing owing to inadequate English literacy can be seen as having limited
English proficiency (LEP). Schools in India face similar challenges in that school
children have little exposure to English oral presentation because of the large classes,
consequently causing them to be afraid of speaking in public (Singh, 2012). Katz,
Haras and Blaszczynski (2010:146) found that US university students who are English
proficient have an advantage at English-speaking institutions where the medium of
instruction is the students’ most proficient language. Mascle’s (2013:217) research on
written English communication skills among US university students found that
students with poor English writing skills are more likely to be highly anxious about
writing and less likely to be equipped to address this deficiency. As a result, these
students tend to avoid writing situations, find writing un-rewarding, are fearful of
having written work evaluated, and become anxious over written work being viewed in
a public forum.
For ESL students, it is evident that language is a barrier to communication. If the
problems remain unresolved, ESL students are likely to carry these difficulties into
their workplace after leaving school, putting them at a disadvantage in their early
working lives.

20
2.3.2 Stage of working
In 2005, Bechan and Visser conducted a study on the influence of language and
culture in a South African corporate. The researchers interviewed selected employees
from various language groups - English, Afrikaans and Xhosa - at a South African
bank to provide the narrative of the research topic. The responses were coded into
the five categories: self-concept, conflict, interaction, decision making and power
distance.
The study found a variance in both approach and attitude of each language group
towards different forms of interaction:
 Meetings: Afrikaans and English groups indicate a willingness to participate in
business meetings and provide their own opinions during such forums,
whereas the Xhosa group is uncomfortable with speaking out during meetings.
As suggested by Bechan and Visser (2005), this may be due to the language
difference as the majority of meetings are conducted in English.
 Formality vs informality: a more informal approach both towards colleagues
and clients is regarded as the norm in the workplace and is preferred by the
English group, but not by the Xhosa and Afrikaans groups.
 Direct vs indirect interaction: bearing in mind the diversity of culture, most
individuals adjust their communication style to accommodate other people,
although Xhosa and Asian groups are noted for their preference for indirect
communication.
It is evident that the preferred choice of communication channel and level of ease with
the channel is affected by the culture of individuals as well as the corporate
environment. Bechan and Visser (2005:75) point out that although some respondents

21
might be uncomfortable with corporate interactional practices, they still adhere to
culturally acceptable behaviour in their personal capacity. However, the fact that
Xhosa employees are “quieter” in meetings due to limited English proficiency, as
suggested in the study, supports the findings in Posel and Zeller’s study of lower
English language ability in older African adults (2005:121).
Different communication styles are identified as one of the causes of conflict in the
corporate environment, and communication barriers due to language differences can
lead to differing perceptions of meetings by different cultural groups. The use of
English as the language of commerce has caused resentment within cultural groups,
as indicated by Bechan and Visser (2005:76).
2.4 Communication challenges of ESL workers
English can lead to a wide variety of communication challenges for ESL workers, both
at a personal as well as an organisational level in the workplace. People may not
necessarily “speak the same way” when it is required for them to “speak the same
language” in multilingual contexts (Regerson-Revell, 2010). The literature studies
reveal several challenges that different types of ESL workers face in South Africa and
other countries abroad.
2.4.1 ‘Lost in translation’
Although the use of non-standard or non-native grammatical variants seldom leads to
a communication breakdown, as shown in analyses of non-native communication,
most obvious breakdowns occur as a result of lexical or phonetic obstacles (Grzega,
2006). In South Africa, ESL speakers have historically and culturally different first and

22
second languages with unrelated grammar and vocabulary usage, and are thus
required to learn not only the knowledge that is conveyed through the medium of the
second language but the second language itself (Osman, Cockcroft & Kajee, 2008).
In the end, this could lead to a number of communication challenges which have been
identified by Osman et al (2008) such as ESL speakers becoming confused about the
meaning of an idea in the second language while translating it into their first language.
For many ESL speakers, the popularised treatment of communication complications
in the film “Lost in Translation” are real and the meaning of the language is often lost
or distorted during the translation. ESL speakers often have great difficulty expressing
themselves when they have to translate ideas from their mother tongues into English.
Attribution or interpretation errors occur in cross-cultural or cross-language
communication when the receivers of a message apply their own cultural
interpretations to it (Cullen & Parboteeah, 2005).
Furthermore, communication is hampered by the inability to improve grammatical
structures or express arguments more clearly and coherently in academic writing,
even when the ESL speakers believe they have expressed themselves as articulately
as they can (Osman, Cockcroft, & Kajee, 2008). One obstacle which should be
acknowledged is the common struggle to find the appropriate vocabulary in English
when no equivalent vocabulary or synonymous concept exists in the speaker’s mother
tongue. This could lead to subtractive multilingualism which leads speakers and
communities to regard their home language and its accompanying culture as
irrelevant and useless (van Staden, Marx & Kritzinger, 2002) and could impose career
constraints on ESL speakers in the workplace.

23
2.4.2 Career constraints
Duval-Couetil and Mikulecky (2011: 210) conducted research in the US that examines
the impact of limited English proficiency on employee performance in manufacturing
businesses using ten different categories, namely dependability, productivity,
teamwork, quality, safety, policies and benefits, training, communication, general
skills, and promotion. The main findings of the research are that employees with
limited English proficiency only perform better than English-speaking employees in
four tasks relating to dependability and productivity. There are 16 job performance
tasks that both groups perform equally well. However, there are 16 tasks that
employees with limited English proficiency perform worse than English-speaking
employees. This is illustrated at Table 2:2.
Table 2:2 Job Performance of LEP Workers vs English-Speaking Workers
Category Better Equally Well Worse
Dependability 2 1 0
Productivity 2 0 0
Teamwork 0 1 1
Quality 0 3 0
Safety 0 1 2
Policies & Benefits 0 3 2
Training 0 4 2
Communication 0 1 5
General Skills 0 0 4
Promotion 0 1 0
(Source: Duval-Couetil & Mikulecky 2011, 215-216)
When further analysing the responses, Duval-Couetil and Mikulecky (2011)
discovered that employees with limited English proficiency only out-perform or do
equally well in the tasks that require simple language. In the tasks, mostly from the
category of communication and general skills, that require more complex language

24
such as understanding written and spoken instructions, writing reports, reading
computer-generated information or reports, speaking on the telephone, and accessing
and understanding training materials, employees with limited English proficiency
really struggle and perform worse than the English-speaking employees. This finding
is aligned with the study conducted by Gallo (2002:5) that found most corporate
documents were full of legal and technical jargon which confuse even the most
educated and experienced readers. Employees with limited English proficiency often
fail to grasp any sarcasm, hidden agendas or implications which are “embedded” in
normal workplace conversation and written reports.
Duval-Couetil and Mikulecky (2011) conclude that employees with limited English
proficiency who perform poorly are usually disadvantaged in terms of reading, writing,
and speaking English. These employees may have been able to satisfy the minimal
communication requirements for entry-level jobs, but their access to promotions, skills
training or other company benefits is limited by their language and literacy skills.
This is echoed by the Evans’ study of English as the lingua franca of business in Hong
Kong (2013:247) which quotes an interviewee’s remark: “If you speak good English,
you can answer quickly and appropriately, giving your boss the impression that you
are conscientious and have helped to resolve the problem. But if your English is weak,
you’ll be tongue-tied, you just won’t be able to contribute, and people will wonder what
you’re doing there.” This is supported by Regerson-Revell (2010:433) who states that
the differences in socio-cultural conventions or in linguistic competence can make one
believe that a person is either intellectually incompetent or intentionally uncooperative
or confrontational. Once again this could lead to subtractive multilingualism, where
the speaker’s home language and associated culture are regarded as irrelevant and
useless (van Staden, Marx & Kritzinger, 2002), and lead to language segregation.

25
2.4.3 Language segregation within the organisation
Anderson and Rasmussen (2004:233) point out that a lack of language skills has very
negative consequences for an employee’s potential access to communication
networks. In a study conducted by Mdera (2011:378) on US hospitality workers, it was
discovered that managers often rely on bilingual employees to communicate with
immigrant workers, without compensating them for their translating skills. On the other
hand, immigrant workers with better English proficiency who perceive a positive
climate for immigrants are more likely to report injuries or health and safety issues to
management than those who are less English proficient.
A study by Anderson and Rasmussen (2004:233) found that many operational level
middle managers and employees at the multinational Danish company, Kone, could
not join training programmes because of their limited English skills. The opportunities
for these employees to seek advice, access critical information timeously and speed
up the decision-making process at a subsidiary level are generally very difficult
because they are unable to create personal ties with employees in other units. This
can lead to segregation within the organisation as Lauring (2007:261) points out in his
study of another multinational Danish company. Lauring (2007) found that the Saudi
Arabian subsidiary of the organisaton was organised into an “ethnically segregated
hierarchy” in which all positions were defined by nationality, and the negative
evaluation of the language competencies of national groups led to the “separation of
nationalities into speech communities”. As a result, it was very uncommon to see
employees of different nationalities engaging in long conversations with each other,
while the national groupings internally exercised an extensive level of informal
socialisation (Lauring 2007). This can be aligned with the findings of Evans

26
(2013:247), that native speakers and other highly English-proficient professionals
enjoy an advantage in meetings and negotiations and express it as a source of power.
The term ‘elite closure’ refers to those who can communicate in a certain language, or
a specific register of the language, and thus become eligible for élite positions at work
or in politics, keeping the majority who are not language proficient in a disadvantaged
position (van Staden et al., 2002). Lauring (2007) believes that in order to maintain the
dominant position of the Danes, the company management is intent on enforcing a
general practice of language use that excludes other nationalities from participating in
decision-making processes, regardless of the risk of making costly mistakes.
While communication between ESL and EFL language employees can be
problematic, using English to communicate among ESL employees can be even more
challenging.
2.4.4 Communication gap among ESL workers
Research conducted by Lockwood (2012:108) states that the Business Process
Outsourcing (BPO) industry of India and Philippines, particularly the call centre sector,
requires proficient English-speaking language skills. However, the industry has
experienced consistent difficulties in hiring good communicators due to the lack of
proficient English language speaking skills which, in turn, limits the ability of industry
players to grow and expand. This is supported by a remark made by an interviewee in
Evans’s study (2013:247) regarding her experience of interacting with professionals
from Asian countries like Philippines: “My impression is that they spoke too fast and
with a strong accent. When I tried to take minutes, I just couldn’t jot anything down
because I couldn’t understand them.” The technical problems, such as a poor signal

27
during tele- or videoconferencing, compounds the difficulties of verbal communication
and further reduces the level of understanding among people (Evans, 2013).
A case study by Crossman and Kite (2007:147) of an MBA community service project
in the US, reports one student as saying that it is not only the US and international
students who have difficulties understanding one another, international students also
experience problems understanding each other.
A study of a multinational organisation in Hong Kong which only uses English in
internal communication (De-Babcock & Tanaka, 2013:281) finds that while Hong
Kong Chinese can use low-context communication to speak to each other and to the
Japanese smoothly, Japanese really struggle to communicate with each other
internally in English because of their lack of both vocabulary and understanding of
sentence structure. Conversely, the Japanese could engage in interactive dialogues
with adequate vocabulary and more complete sentence structure in English when
communicating with the Hong Kong Chinese as the Chinese usage of English
provided a framework that enabled the Japanese to participate at a higher and more
appropriate language level. This suggests that with the right measures and tools in
place, it is possible to overcome the challenges of communication caused by the sole
usage of English in the workplace.
2.5 Overcoming communication challenges
For ESL and LEP workers, the reward of improving their English proficiency to the
required levels can be significant. To enable employees to take the first steps in
achieving such an objective, the literature has outlined a few options for both
employers and employees. One of the useful theories is the inferential model of

28
communication that states when people learn to speak a language, they should also
learn how to communicate in that language, which involves a variety of shared beliefs
or presumptions about linguistics, communication, literacy and conventions
(Akmajian, 2001). In order to achieve the goal of successful linguistic communication,
in which the receiver can recognise the speaker’s message and their communicative
intention, six assumptions are required (Akmajian, 2001):
 The language used is unambiguous
 What the speaker is referring to is determined by the meaning of the utterance
 Communicative intention is determined by the meaning of the sentences
 Speakers only speak literally
 Speakers only speak directly
 Speaker only use words, phrases and sentences to communicate
These six assumptions can be applied to situations when communicating with
non-native speakers and generate the following communication techniques (Cullen &
Parboteeah, 2005):
 Use of common words, words with few alternative meanings and following the
basic rules of grammar,
 Avoiding words borrowed from literature or sports, slang, or “graphical” words
and expressions,
 Using the cultural flavour of the non-native speaker’s language
 Speaking with clear breaks and summarising by paraphrasing or repeating the
basic ideas using different words
 Asking what the listeners have heard and confirming important aspects in
writing

29
Applying the theory outlined above in a business environment opens up a number of
options for both employers and employees.
2.5.1 English literacy programmes and training
ESL employees would gain significant advantages such as improved self-esteem and
access to more job opportunities from workplace literacy programmes, which have
additional rewards beyond those associated with other types of adult basic education
(ABE) programmes (Gallo, 2002). This view is confirmed by Madera (2011:378) who
states that employer-sponsored language classes could improve employee
satisfaction and performance. The doors of opportunities for ESL and LEP employees
would be opened, providing them with the chance of a better future, especially if the
literacy education was for the purposes of empowerment and transformation in the
workplace (Gallo, 2002). Lecturing, which includes structured talk, usually
accompanied by visual aids and handouts of key points, and e-learning, either
delivered, enabled or mediated using electronic technology for the purpose of learning
and development, are common options for organisational training programmes
(Henderson, 2008). The ultimate purpose of business English courses is to achieve
authenticity and practicality, issues that concern both first- and second-language
speakers, who may need multidisciplinary expertise to deal with communication in the
workplace (Chan, 2014).
However, one of the shortfalls of current workplace literacy programmes is the
absence of follow-up in transferring learning from the training room to the job and
home. It has been reported by ESL employees that their newly learned skills are more
often met with impatience and criticism rather than encouragement from their
supervisors (Gallo, 2002). Clarke (1999:13) also points out that short, intensive

30
language courses are probably not worthwhile because their only aim is to boost
language knowledge from zero to a reasonable level within a very short time and the
majority of people tend to forget what they have learned very easily.
When designing foreign language on-the-job training courses, it is necessary to give
careful thought to what is appropriate to the real needs of the business and to make
the training sector-specific, comprehensive, continuous and customised for the
industry (Clarke, 1999). For literacy programmes to be successful and to achieve all
the benefits possible, Clarke (1999:14) and Narsee (2001:49) suggest a multifaceted
approach be adopted. They recommend language courses be adopted that target
relatively low levels within the organisation, which specifically emphasise reading and
writing skills rather than fluency in speaking the language. Such programmes should
incorporate a degree of cultural awareness together with knowledge of business
practices. In order to make the programme sector-specific, emphasis should be
placed on the technical aspects of the language appropriate to the particular industrial
sector. While language and literacy teaching should generally be incorporated with
other skills training, the researchers highlighted the necessity of going beyond the
teaching of specific skills needed for particular workplace tasks. To enable employees
to strengthen their ability to cope with diverse tasks, it is important to focus on
transferable skills that can be applied in a variety of work contexts.
Lockwood (2012:122) found that a poor understanding among key stakeholders of
what comprises good spoken language assessment practices, for call centres in
particular, existed across BPO sites in India and Philippines. The problems are that
potential employees who are, in fact, excellent communicators are excluded as the
organisation penalises mother-tongue inference as well as grammatical and
pronunciation errors during costly and lengthy language assessment processes. To

31
improve the quality of the language assessment, Lockwood (2012) suggests the
following methods be used: 1) Assessors must have valid tools and tasks to work with;
2) Assessors are trained and calibrated to ensure reliability; 3) Developers of
workplace assessments are Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages
(TESOL) trained in the appropriate language frameworks.
2.5.2 Frequent use and practice of English
The communicative approach, as stated by Patel (2015:60), is a flexible method that
focuses on the individual needs of language learners. By making the language
relevant to the world rather than the classroom, learners can acquire the desired skills
rapidly and confidently. One application of this approach is the concept of the “English
Corner”, as described by McCrum (2011:3). Renmin University of China (The
People’s University) hosts an informal gathering every Friday evening for hundreds of
alumni who only speak to one another in English. The hosting of such English Corners
has become a trend in all major universities across China. This is an example of a
training method which focuses on helping people understand their own personal
learning and development processes and can be applied to all groups in which
participants are encouraged to support each other (Henderson, 2008).
This approach can also be associated with the emergence of English public speaking
courses across universities in China as a result of public demand, as indicated in
Wan’s (2013) study. Many young Chinese people view English public speaking skills
as an essential tool for their future career success as well as for individual
self-actualisation (Wan, 2013). These skills not only contribute to students’ language
and critical thinking skills, but to intercultural competencies and career-related
presentation skills in the EFL curriculum in China (Wan, 2013). Wan concluded that it

32
is therefore important to start localisation of English public speaking courses, adapting
the objectives, content, methods of instruction and assessment which are Western in
origin and are not written specifically for Chinese students, to China’s status quo and
students‘ needs.
2.5.3 Improving home language literacy
Posel and Zeller (2011:124) reported that individuals are more likely to be English
language proficient if they are proficient in their home language. More than 60% of the
African adults who reported good home language reading and writing ability also
reported good English language ability, in contrast with the 8% of African adults who
said they were neither home language nor English proficient (Posel & Zeller, 2011).
These findings imply that home language proficiency is strongly related to English
language proficiency, and align with the suggestion from Osman et al. (2008:7) that
ESL speakers have to read more, in both their home language as well as in English,
since the development of writing is closely associated with a proportionate increase in
reading skills. It is also recommended that at school level, not only should more
detailed and specific guidance be given to students on how to improve their academic
writing, but they should also be introduced to the requirements demanded by
institutions of higher learning (Osman et al. 2008). This would help ESL speakers
practise additive multilingualism in which speakers and communities are proud of and
have positive feelings about their home language and culture (van Staden et al.
2002).

33
2.5.4 Use of non-verbal tools
The study by Dawson et al. (2011:329) identifies three techniques for managing ESL
employees: use of non-verbal tools, which includes a combination of gestures,
demonstrating and pointing, whenever communication barriers exist; appointing
multi-culturally competent managers; and providing positive feedback even if it is
non-verbal. Mdera (2011: 378) also suggests that an effective way of overcoming
communication barriers is the simple, ordinary approach of using gestures and
demonstration. Company training programmes have to incorporate learning
objectives to provide managers with non-verbal communication strategies. Such
non-verbal communication techniques have proved to be the most effective and are
quantifiable in terms of productive work time, quality, and accuracy (Dawson et al.,
2011).
Another suggestion from Dreyer (2010:1) is to encourage ESL speakers to use
concept maps, which are graphical tools for organising and representing knowledge
(Novak & Cañas, 2008) since these would assist them to perform better and aid them
in terms of learning business vocabulary. This approach relates to the suggestion by
Gallo (2002:53) that using learners’ photographs of their workplace and lives
facilitates the compilation of an educational curriculum based on themes which are
important to them. Through sharing their stories and photographs, class members
became directly involved in participatory activities which then provide the ideal
learning environment and context for teaching technical vocabulary and awareness of
work-related language and communication skills (Gallo, 2002). However, it is
proposed that complex non-verbal behaviours should be avoided unless their
meanings are explicitly understood. (Cullen & Parboteeah, 2005)

34
2.5.5 Practice of multi-cultural management
In research referred to earlier, Lauring (2007:263) highlights the effects of language
used to maintain a stratified social structure in order to enable the execution of
long-term corporate strategies in the international development of a Danish
multinational. In order to overcome communication barriers, employees could develop
coping strategies such as unauthorised internal translation of company
documentation into various languages (Anderson & Rasmussen, 2004). If the
translation is under-pinned by a common culture and value system, understanding is
created and could be well received by those sharing such a culture and value system
(Seeco, 2010). Lauring & Klitmoller (2015:13) recommend that multicultural
organisations’ management focus on creating an environment that supports openness
to language diversity at both individual and organisational levels. Lauring & Klitmoller
(2015:13) believe that openness to language diversity among employees would
dramatically improve both the performance and creativity of employees.
The long-term solution would be to practise multicultural management. Multiculturally
competent leaders show higher non-verbal positivity than leaders who are not
(Dawson et al, 2011). Multicultural competencies, for example the experience of
working with non-native speakers, are effective in overcoming communication barriers
(Madera 2011). However, it should be borne in mind that managers with multicultural
competencies are scarce in the current workforce (Dawson et al., 2011). Therefore,
employees with cross-cultural adaptability should be developed in organisations so
they can operate effectively in several cultures (Newstrom & Davis, 2002).
If employees are open to language divergence, they will interact more broadly thus
utilising the full range of perspectives that exist in a multicultural organisation (Lauring

35
& Klitmoller, 2015). Aritz and Walker (2014:88), also point out that cooperative styles
of leadership generate more balanced participation and contributions as this style
better reflects the values of being considerate and respectful of others. To put all the
above policies and measures in place, a three-stage process is recommended: 1)
formulation of an explicit policy, 2) implemention of the policy and 3) monitoring the
policy to ensure its effectiveness in practice (Henderson 2008).
2.6 Conclusion
A common language is important for effective verbal or written communication,
especially at management level, and employees are open to differences in the way
people speak (Lauring & Klitmoller 2015). English has become the lingua franca of
international as well as local business over the past two decades. Understanding the
issues relating to language choice and use of English between EFL and ESL
speakers and among different groups of ESL speakers in the rapidly globalising
business and professional world has become increasingly necessary.
Where EFL and ESL speakers within the workplace are concerned, the long history of
foreign immigration in the US has resulted in English becoming the first language of
80% of the population, while the remaining 20% of the population are ESL speakers
(MLA, 2011). Extensive research has been conducted on ESL employees who are
foreigners or new immigrants to the US workplace and some of the research findings
have been discussed in this chapter. The second topic discussed was communication
among different groups of ESL speakers within the workplace. Denmark is a
non-English-speaking, European country with numerous multinational enterprises in
which the Danish management is required to use English (their second language) to
communicate with ESL employees who are from other parts of the world. Philippines,

36
India and China (including Hong Kong), are emerging economies, and are rapidly
entering the global economy which requires the use of English (ESL) to serve clients
and customers, locally and globally. A number of studies on this subject were also
included and discussed in the chapter.
In South Africa, the historical and socio-economical background has resulted in
diverse levels of English proficiency among the four major race groups, a situation
which includes communication between EFL and ESL speakers and among different
groups of ESL speakers in the workplace. It is therefore possible to gain a better
understanding of the challenges ESL speakers face in the South African workplace by
studying the findings from the literature on these issues. For ESL speakers, the
communication challenges, at either a personal or organisational level, are the direct
outcome of the communication process which is strongly affected by language
proficiency. In order to overcome this, both the individuals and the organisation must
implement mitigation strategies to improve both language proficiency and the
communication process within the organisation.
As mentioned previously, the researcher is an ESL speaker who has had first-hand
experience of the intrinsic communication benefits to be found in the use of visual
aids, both in terms of clarifying and conveying messages, and, as recommended in
the literature pertaining to this subject, will be using this approach throughout this
document. In the following two chapters this research will investigate the research
proposition that the communication challenges facing ESL employees become less
significant during the course of their working lives.

37
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the research methodology adopted in this study. The focus is on
the research design and approaches, sample design and procedure, data collection,
data analysis and data validity. Suggestions from literature are presented to justify the
research design and the approach used. The aim of this chapter is to ensure that the
approach associated with the study will answer the proposed research questions and
overall study objectives.
3.2 Research approach and design
Epistemology, on the other hand, is the study of knowledge and justified belief and is
concerned of the necessary and sufficient conditions, sources structure and limits of
such knowledge (Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, 2005). Epistemic imperative,
the scientific knowledge that is driven by the search of truth, is the main drive of world
of science and scientific research in modern days (Babbie & Mouton, 2010). The term
“metatheory”, also known as “philosophy of science”, or “metascience” refers to the
critical reflection of scientific inquiry and addresses the issues of the nature and
structure of scientific theories and growth, the meaning of truth, explanation and
objectivity. There are two influential traditions in metatheory, namely the positivist
tradition and the interpretivist tradition (Babbie & Mouton, 2010).
Positivist metatheory states that the researcher and respondent are independent and
objective data is gathered. During the research, the researcher is removed and
his/her values do not play a role in the respondents’ reactions (Babbie & Mouton,

38
2010). The aim is to discover natural laws so people can predict and control events
(Neuman, 2003). Interpretivist metatheory is based on the centrality of human
consciousness which emphasises the difference between the objectives of natural
and social sciences (Babbie & Mouton, 2010). The researcher and respondent are
interactive and the aim is to understand and describe meaningful social action
(Neuman, 2003). The research proposition outlined in Chapter 1 is that the
communication challenges encountered by ESL employees become less significant
during the course of their working lives. To determine whether the level of
communication challenges decreases, objective data on the levels will be gathered
and the researcher will have no influence over respondents, therefore the principles of
positivist metatheory will be utilised.
The choice of metatheory affects the choice of methodological paradigm in research.
The Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford University Press, 2013) defines the meaning of
the word paradigm as "a typical example or pattern of something - a pattern or model".
Social researchers use the collective term, methodological paradigm, to describe the
actual methods and techniques used as well as their underlying principles and
assumptions. The aim of the research paradigm is to discover whether there are
benefits to converging these functions and if areas can be identified for improvement
(Babbie & Mouton, 2010). The two most common methodological paradigms are:
quantitative and qualitative, and each approach is linked to a respective metatheory
(Babbie & Mouton, 2010). The emphasis in a quantitative paradigm is a deductive
approach in which the planning on design, measurement and sample is drafted in
detail prior to collection and analysis (Leong & Austin, 2006). It aims to quantify the
constructs, discover correlations between the variables in order to describe and
analyse human behaviour and to control the sources of errors in the research process
(Babbie & Mouton, 2010). A qualitative paradigm, on the other hand, uses an

39
inductive approach where insights and generalisations are developed from the data
(Leong & Austin, 2006). Through observation and analytical methods, the qualitative
paradigm keeps the research subjects close to the researcher (Babbie & Mouton,
2010).
The research proposition outlined is aimed to determine whether the level of
communication challenges decreases. The gathered data is best to be represented in
the numerical format. It is clear from the above that a quantitative research paradigm.
According to Babbie and Mouton (2010:74), the research design is a “plan or blueprint
of how the researchers intend to conduct the research study”. It focuses on obtaining
the end-product, the planned study and its objectives; setting out the research
problem and questions which constitute the point of departure; and lays out the logic
of the research in the form of required evidence. There are two general classifications
of research designs: empirical or non-empirical. The aim of an empirical study is to
address the problem in real-life with accompanying exploratory questions, a category
of research questions in this classification, and to explore or provide basic familiarity
with the topic (Babbie & Mouton, 2010). From this description, it is clear that the
research proposition outlined in Chapter 1 is empirical and exploratory in nature.
3.3 Sampling
There are two sampling techniques which could be utilised - probability and
non-probability sampling - with the choice of the sampling technique being dependent
on the research situation (Babbie & Mouton, 2010). As stated in Chapter 1, the target
population of the research is ESL employees in South Africa. Convenient sampling is
used and data collected from surveys administered to ESL employees at the two

40
organisations in which the researcher was employed. The sample (170 employees)
from two organisations provides an ideal mix of ESL speakers.
3.4 Data collection
A quantitative survey will be used as it is less time-consuming given the time-frame of
this research study. The questionnaire is electronic, accessible online and has been
structured to allow for immediate numerical analysis once completed. The time for
analysis will therefore be reduced since the tools utilised generate graphical
illustrations of survey responses. The research will be conducted in the following three
stages:
 Stage 1: the researcher will obtain a list of South African and foreign ESL
employees at the two organisations and then distribute the survey
questionnaire to ESL employees. In order to increase the response rate,
reminders will be sent to all potential respondents.
 Stage 2: Completed surveys will be collected and the data scrutinised and
interpreted.
 Stage 3: Follow-up interviews will be conducted on five respondents in order to
obtain an in-depth understanding of their perceptions of the communication
challenges they experienced.
The survey questionnaire will be sent to each individual in the population sample of
170 people and everyone will be given 10 days to complete and return the survey.

41
Primary data collected will be obtained by a structured survey questionnaire as
included in Appendix B. By providing respondents with standard questionnaires, the
measuring of results allows for accurate comparisons between research variables.
Surveys will be disseminated electronically and accessed by all respondents online.
An online survey will be used because the majority of employees work at different
client sites which are geographically dispersed. It would be impractical, given the time
and financial constraints of the study, to conduct personal interviews with each
respondent. The online survey will be easy to access and use, increasing
respondents’ willingness to participate. It will also allow for real time control of the
number and type of responses that are received. Since all the surveys will be
administered in the same way to all respondents, an online survey is also deemed to
be less biased than a paper-based survey.
One of the possible drawbacks of a questionnaire is the fact that the data obtained
may lack substantial detail on the research topic because of the structured nature of
the research strategy and the fixed-choice questions. In order to overcome this,
questions will be structured around a theoretical framework and the research
objectives and proposition as stated in Chapter 1:
 Primary objective: to investigate the extent to which language challenges
change in the course of ESL employees’ working careers
 Secondary objectives: 1) to investigate the change of English proficiency in
ESL employees during their working careers; 2) to investigate the impact of the
change of English proficiency level on language challenges faced by ESL
employees in the course of their working careers.
 Proposition: the communication challenges facing ESL employees becomes
less significant in the course of their working lives.

42
There are two types of data which will be drawn from the research:
 Demographic data: name and surname, gender, nationality (South African or
foreign), ethnic group (if South African), country of origin (if foreign), home
language, other languages spoken, education level (high school, certificate,
diploma, degree and post-graduate), duration of English based-education (in
years), working experience (in years), duration of English-based working
experience, current area of work in the organisation.
 Perceptions data: These include the ESL individual’s English proficiency or
competency level in the workplace, from the time they first started working until
the present, and the communication challenges they perceive in terms of using
English in communication tasks between these two points in time.
Respondents were asked to assess the degree of helpfulness (effectiveness)
of the actions that they or their organisation could take to overcome
communication challenges. Perceptions of how improved English proficiency
contributes to ESL individuals’ confidence at work, performance levels, job
satisfaction and participation in team or departmental activities are also
assessed.
A bi-polar Likert scale will be used for questions to capture perception data. This
requires respondents to choose between two opposite site positions and is suitable
for both indexing and scaling of data analysis. Five dimensions will be consistently
applied throughout the questions on perceptions, with three different types of
measuring positions:
1. Perceptions of level of English proficiency: Not Competent, Slightly
Competent, Moderately Competent, Very Competent and Extremely
Competent.

43
2. Perceptions of degree of communication challenges: Not Challenging,
Slightly Challenging, Moderately Challenging, Very Challenging and
Extremely Challenging
3. Perceptions of helpfulness (effectiveness) of individual or
organisational efforts in overcoming communication challenges and
of improved English proficiency in individuals and organisations: Not
Helpful, Slightly Helpful, Moderately Helpful, Very Helpful and Extremely
Helpful
The questionnaire will be divided into two sections: the first section (Section A)
contains questions to collect demographic data and the second section (Section B)
contains questions to collect the perception data. The wording used in the
questionnaire will be simple and straightforward. The number of questions will be
fewere than 20 and a matrix style table will be used to collect the perception data. The
table format is ideal for entering data as it is easy to read and quick to answer. The
questions on perception of four language areas- speaking, listening, reading and
writing – will be asked first, followed by questions on communication tasks in each
language area at workplace.
3.5 Data analysis
According to Leong and Austin (2006:14), data analysis involves a review of research
questions or hypotheses, coding and cleansing data, computing descriptive statistics,
assessing reliability and validity and testing data against research questions or
hypotheses. Survey Monkey, a web-based tool, and Excel will be used to facilitate
coding and cleansing data.

44
Numerical data of one variable can be described by frequency distributions, in ordinal,
interval or ratio forms, and can be presented in graphical forms such as a histogram,
bar chart and pie chart (Neuman, 2003). Survey Monkey is also equipped with
analytical capabilities that can be utilised in creating charts from data obtained in the
research survey.
Due to the fact that there is no hypothesis to be tested in this study, full statistical
analyses are not required. However, a bi-variate analysis (in which two variables are
involved) and three central tendency measures will be used in the analysis to provide
summarised information on the variables (Neuman, 2003). These measures are
mean, the average of scale values; median, the middle number scale values; and
mode, the most frequently appearing scale values. For the purpose of the research
analysis, data sets will be downloaded and charts created to allow for the analysis of
data that answers the research objectives.
3.5.1 Data validity
Validity refers to the extent to which empirical measures adequately reflect the real
meaning of the concepts under consideration (Babbie & Mouton, 2010). In order to
test the validity of the research, the method of construct validity will be used. This
aims to investigate how the relationships between variables are established and
determines whether the independent variables are responsible for changes in the
dependent variables (Welman & Kruger, 2002).
From the research proposition and demographic data which will be collected, the
following variables will be derived:
 Point in time when the respondent started working up until the present;

45
 Education level;
 Duration of English-based education
 Duration of English-based work experience.
There are three main measurements that will be used in the research:
 English proficiency or competency level
 Degree of challenge of general communication tasks
 Degree of challenge of general communication tasks carried out in English
By combining the variable with the three measurements listed, the following
constructs can be established:
 Time point and English proficiency level;
 Time point and degree of challenge of general communication tasks;
 Time point and degree of challenge posed by the English language
The validity of all three constructs will be tested by how successfully these variables
can be measured in a logical way when analysing the survey data collected.
3.5.2 Data reliability
Reliability refers to the extent to which a particular technique would yield the same
result if it is applied repeatedly to the same object (Babbie & Mouton, 2010). In order
to test the reliability of the research, the method of reliability of research workers will
be used. This aims to verify the selected pieces of information by contacting the
subsample of the respondents in the research.
After the data of the survey questionnaire is collected and analysed, five respondents
will be selected and interviewed. There are two purposes to the interviews:

46
 Verification: to confirm the accuracy of the basic and perception data
submitted by the interviewee to the survey questionnaire
 Elaboration: to provide more explanation and personal stories on the
interviewee’s answers to perceptions about their level of English proficiency,
the perceived degree of communication challenges, perceptions on the
helpfulness (effectiveness) of individual or organisational efforts in overcoming
communication challenges and on improved English proficiency in individuals
and organisations.
If the selected pieces of information can be verified by contacting the subsample of
the respondents in the research, the data can be considered reliable.
3.6 Conclusion
The research proposition outlined in Chapter 1 is that the communication challenges
facing ESL employees become decreasingly significant during the course of their
working lives. A quantitative research paradigm following the principles of positivist
metatheory is utilised. It is clear that the research proposition is empirical and
exploratory in nature.
A quantitative survey will be used as it is less time-consuming given the time
constraints of this research study. The electronic questionnaire will be accessible
online and is structured to allow for immediate numerical analysis once complete. The
questions are structured around a theoretical framework, research objectives and
propositions. Data on demography and perceptions of the level of English proficiency,
degree of communication challenges and helpfulness (effectiveness) of individual or
organisational efforts in overcoming these challenges and of improved English

47
proficiency in individuals and organisations will be collected. The researcher will
distribute the survey questionnaire to all ESL employees at the Johannesburg head
offices of both organisations.
It is hoped that the study objectives will make a contribution to the corporate
environment and further afield by increasing understanding of the challenges
encountered by ESL speakers in the workplace.

48
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS
4.1 Introduction
The purpose of this study is to explore the communication and language challenges
perceived and experienced by ESL employees in a work environment. The primary
objective is to investigate the extent to which language challenges change during the
course of ESL employees’ working careers. The secondary objectives are to
investigate the change in English proficiency in ESL employees during the course of
their careers and to investigate the impact of the change of English proficiency levels
on language challenges faced in the course of ESL employees’ working careers.
From the primary and secondary objectives described above, the proposition
emerges that communication challenges facing ESL employees decrease significantly
in the course of their working lives.
Primary data was collected by means of a structured questionnaire and personal
interviews. The researcher selected a sample of respondents and administered a
standard questionnaire which was disseminated electronically and accessed online by
respondents. Personal interviews were conducted with selected respondents to
validate responses submitted. After the data was collected, it was examined to
ascertain whether expectations regarding data characteristics and quality had been
met. The data was analysed and interpreted against different aspects of the research
proposition: communication challenges facing ESL employees become less
significant during the course of their working lives. The findings of the survey
questionnaire are presented in this section.

49
4.2 Response rate
The sample population is 170 and a total of 61 respondents (36%) responded by
returning the survey. Of the surveys returned, 46 respondents (27%) completed the
questionnaire fully, a rate which is aligned to the usual internal survey return rate of
between 20% and 30% at both organisations. The demographical composition of the
respondents is similar to the sample population in which white, Afrikaans speaking
employees are the majority. Therefore, the response rate remains significant. In terms
of the questionnaire, 98% of the demographic questions in Section A were answered,
while in Section B only 75% of the questions about perceptions were answered.
Responses are summarised in Table 4:1 andTable 4:2
Table 4:1 Response Rate
Sent Survey Returned Survey Returned Survey Fully Completed
170 61 (36%) 46 (27%)
Table 4:2: Average Response Rate in Each Section
Sections Answered Skipped Total Answered
(%)
Skipped
(%)
Total
(%)
A: Demographical
Questions 60 1 61 98% 2% 100%
B: Perceptions
Questions 46 15 61 75% 25% 100%
Once the responses from the survey were obtained, the data was analysed and
interpreted against the different elements of the research proposition. The validity and
reliability of the data were also examined. Recommendations and findings were drawn
from the survey trends and conclusions illustrated in Chapter 5 of this study.

50
4.3 Demographical results
In terms of gender and nationality, 32% of the sample was female and 68% male
while 7% was foreign and 93% were South African. See Table 4:3.
Table 4:3 Nationality and Race Groups Composition
Nationality Country SA Race Count Total
Foreign National
Angola 1
3 (7%)Democratic Republic of Congo 1
India 1
South African South Africa Black 5 38 (93%)
White 33
Grand Total 41 41 (100%)
In terms of language composition, the sample reflected a total of 12 languages. The
most widely spoken home language was Afrikaans (80%) followed by English (99%)
as the most widely spoken second language. See Table 4:4.
Table 4:4 Language Composition
Language Home Language Second Language Third Language Fourth Language
Afrikaans 33 (80%)
Awadhi 1 (2%)
Bengali 1 (2%)
English 40 (99%)
Fanakalo 1 (2%)
French 1 (2%)
Hindi 1 (2%)
Portuguese 1 (2%)
Sepedi 1 (2%)
Swahili 1 (2%)
Tsonga 2 (5%)
Zulu 2 (5%) 1 (2%)

51
In terms of education level, 9% of respondents had the equivalent of a Matriculation
Certificate, 5% held a Diploma, 27% an undergraduate degree and 59% a
postgraduate degree. See Table 4:5.
Table 4:5 Higher Education Profiles
Education Level Responses
Certificate 4 (9%)
Diploma 2 (5%)
Undergraduate Degree 11 (27%)
Postgraduate Degree 24 (59%)
Total 41
In terms of functions within their work environment, 32% of the respondents work at
management level, 51% in operations, 17% in support areas and 2% did not specify
their job functions. See Table 4:6
Table 4:6 Areas of Employment
Functional Area Responses
Management 13 (32%)
Operation 21 (51%)
Support 7 (17%)
Total 41
In terms of the duration of English education experienced by individuals, 61% of the
sample reported fewer than 10 years and 34% reported 10 to 19 years. In terms of
combined total work experience and total English work experience, about 83 % of the
sample reported that they had fewer than 20 years’ experience and about 17% of the
respondents had more than 20 years’ experience. See Table 4:7.

52
Table 4:7 Duration of English Education, Work Experience and English Work
Experience
Duration (Years) English Education Work Experience English Work Experience
0 – 9 years 25 (61%) 21 (51%) 22 (54%)
10 - 19 years 14 (34%) 13 (32%) 14 (34%)
Above 20 years 2 (5%) 7 (17%) 5 (12%)
Total 41 (100%) 41 (100%) 41 (100%)
In summary, the typical respondents in this study are South African whites with
Afrikaans as their first language and English as a second language. The average
respondent has a postgraduate degree and works in the operational area of the
business with fewer than 10 years in English-based education and work experience.
As mentioned in Chapter 3 four variables derived from the research proposition (point
of time at which the respondent started work until the present, education level,
duration of English-based education and duration of English-based work experience)
were analysed against the following measurements, English proficiency or
competency level, degree of challenge of general communication tasks and degree of
challenge of general communication tasks carried out in English. A semantic
differential scale with five dimensions was used in the survey questionnaire and a
numerical value, ranging from 1 to 5, was assigned to each dimension and used in
data analysis. Due to the fact that there is no hypothesis to be tested in this study, full
statistical analyses were not required. However, the following basic statistical
measures, mean, median and mode, were used in the analysis to provide a clearer
picture of the survey findings.
A list of ESL employees was provided by the Human Resources department at both
organisations. After the surveys were completed, it was discovered that six ESL
employees were actually English-speaking and were removed from the data analysis.

53
Findings were grouped according to each research variable and additional findings
were included in the chapter.
4.4 Comparison of educational levels
The analytical results of the average or mean of the three measurements against the
three education levels are illustrated in Table 4:8 and Figure 4:1.
Table 4:8 Average English competency levels, communication and language
challenges in relation to educational level
Education
Level
Level of English Competency Degree of English
Communication Challenge
Degree of English Language
Challenge
Speak Listen Read Write Speak Listen Read Write Speak Listen Read Write
Certificate 3.67 4.00 4.00 4.00 1.67 1.47 1.87 2.00 1.53 1.67 1.33 1.47
Diploma 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 1.10 1.40 1.40 1.60 1.80 1.60 1.38 1.30
Undergraduate
Degree
4.18 4.55 4.00 3.82 1.29 1.16 1.27 1.62 1.75 1.40 1.43 1.16
Postgraduate
Degree
4.04 4.46 4.21 4.17 1.25 1.14 1.22 1.30 1.44 1.27 1.35 1.12
Overall 4.05 4.43 4.13 4.05 1.29 1.19 1.29 1.46 1.55 1.35 1.38 1.17
(Note:
 Level of English Competency: 1=Not Competent, 2=Slightly Competent, 3=Moderately
Competent, 4=Very Competent, 5=Extremely Competent Degree of English Communication
Challenge and English Language Challenge: 1=Not Challenging, 2=Slightly Challenging,
3=Moderately Challenging, 4=Very Challenging, 5=Extremely Challenging)

54
Figure 4:1 Average English competency level, communication and language
challenges compared to educational level
(Source: Table 4:8)
When comparing English proficiency level against educational level, there are a
number of notable findings:
 All groups report good average English proficiency levels in all four categories,
with the average level between 4.05 and 4.43 (very competent).
 Undergraduate degree holders report the highest average level of proficiency
in the category of listening.
 Speaking and writing are the least competent categories among all
respondents, while listening was the most competent category.
When comparing the degree of challenge of communication tasks encountered
against educational level, there are a number of findings:
 The average degree of challenges in the four categories is between 1.19 and
1.46 for all respondents (not challenging).
 Undergraduate degree and postgraduate degree holders report a lower
average degree of challenge in listening and reading respectively.

55
 Writing is the most challenging category among all respondents, while listening
is the least challenging category.
When comparing the degree of challenge in the English language against educational
level, there are a number of findings:
 The average degree of challenges in the four language competency categories
is between 1.17 and 1.55 for all respondents (not challenging).
 Postgraduate degree holders report the lowest average degree of challenge in
all four categories.
 Speaking is the most challenging category among all respondents, while
writing the least challenging. This is the contrary to the results in the degree of
challenge of communication tasks.
Overall, in terms of English competency, there is no distinct advantage for
respondents with higher educational levels. However, those with higher educational
levels seemingly face fewer challenges in terms of English communication tasks and
in using the English language itself.
4.5 Comparison of duration of English-based education
The analytical results of the average of the three measurements against the duration
or length of English-based education are illustrated at Table 4:11 and Figure 4:2.

56
Table 4:9 Average English competency levels, communication and language
challenges in comparison to duration of English-based education
Duration of
English-Based
Education
(Years)
Level of English Competency Degree of English
Communication Challenge
Degree of English Language
Challenge
Speak Listen Read Write Speak Listen Read Write Speak Listen Read Write
0-9 4.00 4.44 4.04 4.00 1.33 1.21 1.34 1.49 1.65 1.37 1.45 1.21
10-19 4.07 4.43 4.36 4.14 1.26 1.23 1.23 1.44 1.49 1.39 1.39 1.27
Overall 4.03 4.44 4.15 4.05 1.30 1.22 1.30 1.47 1.59 1.37 1.43 1.23
(Note:
 Level of English Competency: 1=Not Competent, 2=Slightly Competent, 3=Moderately
Competent, 4=Very Competent, 5=Extremely Competent
 Degree of English Communication Challenge and English Language Challenge: 1=Not
Challenging, 2=Slightly Challenging, 3=Moderately Challenging, 4=Very Challenging,
5=Extremely Challenging)
Figure 4:2 Average English competency level, communication and language
challenges compared with duration of English-based education
(Source: Table 4:11)
When comparing English proficiency level with the duration of English-based
education, there are a number of findings:
 All groups report good average English proficiency levels in all four categories,
with the average level between 4.03 and 4.44 (very competent).

57
 Respondents with 10 to 19 years of English-based education report a higher
average level of proficiency in the categories of speaking, reading and writing.
 Speaking and writing are the least competent categories among all
respondents, while listening is the most competent category.
When comparing the degree of challenge of communication tasks against duration of
English-based education, there are a number of findings:
 The average degree of challenge for all groups is between 1.22 and 1.47 (not
challenging).
 Respondents with 10 to 19 years of English-based education report a lower
average degree of challenge in the speaking, reading and writing categories.
 Writing is the most challenging category for all respondents, while listening is
the least challenging. This is the same as the results found when comparing
skills to different educational levels in the previous section.
When comparing the degree of challenge of using the English language with the
duration of an English-based education, there are a number of findings:
 The average degree of challenge for all groups is between 1.23 and 1.49 (not
challenging).
 Respondents with 10 to 19 years of English-based education report a lower
average degree of challenge in the speaking, reading and writing categories.
 Speaking is the most challenging category among all respondents, while
writing is the least challenging category. This was contrary to the results of the
degree of challenge of communication tasks, but the same as results found
when examining different educational levels stated in the previous section.

58
Overall, in terms of English competency, respondents with longer periods of
English-based education seemingly have an advantage over respondents with less
English-based education. Respondents with longer periods of English-based
education also experienced lower degrees of challenge in dealing with English
communication tasks and using the English language in the workplace.
4.6 Comparison with English-based work experience
The analytical results of the average of the three measurements against the duration
or length of English-based education are illustrated at Table 4:10 and
Figure 4:3.
Table 4:10 Average English competency levels, communication and language
challenges compared with English-based work experience
Duration of
English-Based
Work
Experience
(Years)
Level of English Competency Degree of English
Communication Challenge
Degree of English Language
Challenge
Speak Listen Read Write Speak Listen Read Write Speak Listen Read Write
0-9 4.05 4.45 4.00 4.14 1.39 1.27 1.48 1.65 1.64 1.44 1.35 1.27
10-19 4.00 4.29 4.07 3.93 1.14 1.13 1.14 1.21 1.30 1.26 1.29 1.10
20-29 4.00 4.60 4.60 3.80 1.36 1.20 1.16 1.56 2.12 1.52 2.00 1.32
Grand Total 4.02 4.41 4.10 4.02 1.30 1.21 1.33 1.49 1.58 1.39 1.41 1.22
(Note:
 Level of English Competency: 1=Not Competent, 2=Slightly Competent, 3=Moderately
Competent, 4=Very Competent, 5=Extremely Competent
 Degree of English Communication Challenge and English Language Challenge: 1=Not
Challenging, 2=Slightly Challenging, 3=Moderately Challenging, 4=Very Challenging,
5=Extremely Challenging)

59
Figure 4:3 Average English competency levels, communication and language
challenges in comparison to English-based work experience
(Source: Table 4:10)
When comparing English proficiency levels at the start or commencement of a
respondent’s working career with English-based work experience, there are a number
of findings:
 All groups report good average English proficiency levels in all four categories,
with the average level between 4.02 and 4.41 (very competent).
 Respondents with 10 to 19 years of English-based work experience report a
higher average level of proficiency in the categories of speaking, reading and
writing.
 Speaking and writing are the least competent categories among all
respondents, while listening is the most competent category.
When comparing the degree of the challenge of communication tasks against
English-based work experience, the following findings are noted:
 The average degree of challenge for all groups is between 1.22 and 1.47 (not
challenging).

60
 Respondents with 10 to 19 years of English-based education report a lower
average degree of challenge in the speaking, reading and writing categories.
 Writing is the most challenging category among all respondents, while listening
is the least challenging category. This was the same as results found when
comparing different educational levels, as stated in a previous section.
When comparing the degree of challenges posed by the English language against
English-based work experience, the following findings are noted:
 The average degree of challenge for all groups is between 1.22 and 1.47 (not
challenging).
 Respondents with 10 to 19 years of English-based education report a lower
average degree of challenge in the speaking, reading and writing categories.
 Writing is the most challenging category among all respondents, while listening
is the least challenging category. This is the same as the results found when
comparing different educational levels in a previous section.
Overall, in terms of English competency, respondents with longer English-based work
experience seem to have an advantage over respondents with shorter English-based
work experience. Respondents with longer periods of English-based work experience
also experience a lower degree of challenge in English communication tasks and
using the English language in the workplace.
4.7 Comparison at different time points
The analytical results of the average of the three measurements taken at different
time points are illustrated at Table 4:11 and

61
Figure 4:4.
Table 4:11 English proficiency levels from commencement of employment (B)
until the present (P)
At Start of Working (B) At Present (P)
Speak Listen Read Write Speak Listen Read Write
English Competency 3.00 3.42 3.46 3.08 3.92 4.38 4.46 3.96
English Communication
Challenge
2.21 1.79 1.79 2.17 1.42 1.17 1.08 1.29
English Language
Challenge
2.63 1.88 2.33 1.67 1.58 1.25 1.50 1.13
(Note:
 Level of English Competency: 1=Not Competent, 2=Slightly Competent, 3=Moderately
Competent, 4=Very Competent, 5=Extremely Competent
 Degree of English Communication Challenge and English Language Challenge: 1=Not
Challenging, 2=Slightly Challenging, 3=Moderately Challenging, 4=Very Challenging,
5=Extremely Challenging)
Figure 4:4 Average English competency levels, communication and language
challenges at different time points
(Source: Table 4:11)

62
When comparing English proficiency levels at the start of a respondent’s working
career to the present, a number of findings are noted:
 The average level of competency is between 3.00 and 3.46 (moderately
competent) when measuring the four language proficiency categories of
speaking, listening, reading and writing at the start of a respondents’ working
career. All of the respondents however report a significant improvement in their
English proficiency level in all four categories at the present time, with an
average level of 3.92 to 4.46 (moderately competent to very competent).
 Reading is the most competent category at all times, while speaking is the least
competent category at all times.
When comparing the degree of challenge posed by communication tasks at the start
of respondents’ working careers with the present time, the following findings were
noted:
 The average degree of challenge is between 1.79 and 2.21 (not challenging to
slightly challenging) when measuring the four language proficiency categories
of speaking, listening, reading and writing at the start of respondents’ working
careers. All respondents however report a significant improvement in reducing
the degree of challenges faced in all four categories at the present time,
reporting the average level of 1.08 to 1.42 (not challenging).
 Reading is the least challenging category at all times, while speaking is the
most challenging. This aligns with the findings in terms of English proficiency
level where reading is the most proficient category and speaking the least
proficient.

63
When comparing the degree of challenge of using the English language at the
beginning of respondents’ working careers with the present time, the following
findings are noted:
 The average degree of challenge is between 1.67 and 2.63 (not challenging to
slightly challenging) when measuring the four language proficiency categories
of speaking, listening, reading and writing at the start of respondents’ working
careers. All respondents however report a significant reduction in their degree
of challenge in all four categories at the present time, reporting an average
level of 1.13 to 1.58 (not challenging).
 Writing is the least challenging category at all times, while speaking is the most
challenging. This partially aligns with the findings in terms of English
proficiency level where speaking is the least proficient category whereas
writing is the second least proficient category.
Overall, all of the respondents report a significant improvement in terms of English
proficiency level and reduced levels of challenges in English communication and
using the English language, when comparing the beginning of their work careers with
the present time.
4.8 Other findings
In terms of personal actions taken to overcome communication challenges, the most
effective action is working in an English-only company or environment (3.83), followed
by practising English communication with others (3.75), enrolling in English-based
education and training courses (3.63) and enrolling in education or training courses in
the English language (3.25). See

64
Table 4:12 .
Table 4:12 Degree of helpfulness (effectiveness) of personal actions to
overcome communication challenges
Actions 1 2 3 4 5 Mode Mean Median
Work in English-only
company/environment 0% 15% 12% 46% 27% 4.00 3.83 4.00
Practise more English
communication with others 12% 7% 20% 32% 29% 4.00 3.75 4.00
Enrol in English-based education &
training courses 15% 12% 24% 27% 22% 4.00 3.63 4.00
Enrol in education & training course
on English language 27% 12% 27% 20% 15% 4.00 3.25 3.00
(Note: 1 = not helpful, 2 = Slightly Helpful, 3 = Moderately Helpful, 4=Very Helpful, 5 = extremely
helpful)
In terms of the degree of helpfulness in improving English proficiency levels, the most
positive area noted is in the levels of confidence at work (4.00), followed by
performance at work (3.58), participation in team activities and discussions (3.58),
departmental or project teams (3.33) and relationships with colleagues or superiors
(3.17). See Table 4:13.

65
Table 4:13 Degree of helpfulness of improved English proficiency in workplace
Areas 1 2 3 4 5 Mode Mean Median
Level of confidence at work 5% 7% 15% 41% 32% 5.00 4.00 4.00
Performance at work 10% 7% 32% 37% 15% 4.00 3.58 4.00
Participation in team’s activities and
discussions 17% 15% 34% 29% 5% 5.00 3.58 4.00
Departmental or project team 12% 17% 7% 39% 24% 4.00 3.33 4.00
Relationship with colleagues or
superiors 17% 12% 24% 39% 7% 4.00 3.17 4.00
(Note: 1 = not helpful, 2 = Slightly Helpful, 3 = Moderately Helpful, 4=Very Helpful, 5 = extremely
helpful)
In terms of the actions that an organisation or employer could take to assist ESL
employees in overcoming communication challenges, the most preferred action is
organising or sponsoring employee education and training courses in English (mean
3.33), followed by organising or sponsoring employees’ enrolment in English
education and training courses (mean 3.33). See Table 4:14.
Table 4:14 ESL employee support for further education & training
Actions 1 2 3 4 5 Mode Mean Median
Company organised or sponsored
education & training courses in
English 20% 15% 15% 29% 76% 4.00 3.33 4.00
Company organised or sponsored
enrolment in English-medium
education & training 17% 27% 17% 32% 10% 4.00 3.33 3.00
(Note: 1 = not helpful, 2 = Slightly Helpful, 3 =Moderately Helpful, 4=Very Helpful, 5 = extremely
helpful)
Overall, the majority of the respondents believe that environment, practice and
training are the three main factors contributing to the improvement of English
competency among ESL employees in the workplace. Actions to improve English
competency could be initiated by either individuals or employers. The majority of

66
respondents also recognise that there are numerous mutual benefits for both
employees and employers of improving overall English competency in the workplace.
4.9 Validity and reliability
The validity of the research is tested by how successfully the variables of these three
constructs can be measured in a logical way when analysing the survey data. The
main findings relating to the measurements of the proposition, given in Chapter 3, are
summarised below:
 A time point and English proficiency level: there is an overall positive
improvement in competency in all categories at the present time compared to
the start of the individual’s working career.
 The time point and degree of challenge of general communication tasks:
The view that an overall positive improvement has been experienced in
reducing the degree of challenges faced in all four categories at the present
time compared to the start of the working career is valid.
 The time point and degree of challenge posed by the English language:
there is an overall positive improvement in reducing the degree of challenges
faced in all categories at the present time compared to the start of the working
career.
Therefore, one could conclude that there is no discrepancy among the variables
hence the research can be seen as valid.
Reliability refers to the extent to which a particular technique will yield same result
each time if it is applied repeatedly to the same object. After the data of the survey
questionnaire was collected and analysed, five respondents were selected and

67
interviewed to verify their responses in the questionnaire. The interviewees were also
asked to elaborate on the reasons for the communication challenges they
experienced in the workplace.
Many South Africans, as well as foreign nationals, hail from non-English backgrounds
and were never required to use English before enrolling for tertiary education or
entering the workplace. Schooling prior to entering to the workplace is crucial for ESL
speakers. If they are to become more English proficient during school, they would
face fewer communication challenges in the workplace. This is aligned with the survey
findings that 61% of the respondents had fewer than 10 years English-based
education, and respondents who had spent more time in an English-based
educational institution seemingly had an advantage when it came to English
competency and experienced a lower degree of challenge in both English
communication tasks and using the English language in the workplace.
Translation, mentioned by a number of respondents, is the core of English
communication for ESL speakers and can be very challenging on certain occasions.
Overall, speaking is considered the most challenging task as it requires instant
“translation” of thoughts and ideas. On the other hand, writing is relatively easier as it
allows ESL speakers more “processing” time to translate their thoughts and ideas
from their home language to English. In the workplace, some interviewees report that
communicating work-related, technical concepts is easier than social conversation.
This is because technical terminology and concepts are frequently used in the
workplace and can be learnt and applied easily by ESL speakers. This aligns with the
survey findings that speaking is the least competent and most challenging category at
all times while writing is the least challenging.

68
In order to improve the effectiveness and quality of English communication, it is
suggested that ESL speakers learn to “think” in English, not in their home language.
Frequent practice is essential for improving English proficiency levels. Some
respondents also mention that personality traits, such as being introverts versus
extroverts, could affect the degree and the categories of challenges that ESL
speakers face in the workplace. This is not mentioned in either the literature or the
responses to the survey questionnaire.
In conclusion, the survey participants’ responses to the survey questionnaire and
interview feedback are aligned and the research can be seen as reliable.
4.10 Conclusion
From the literature study and survey results presented in this research, a number of
findings are highlighted.
1. Speaking is overall the most challenging for ESL speakers.
As suggested by Singh (2012:241) effective language skills are required for
communication in the workplace and fluency and accuracy in language are required to
make oral presentations effective in verbal communication. Speaking is the most
challenging task, suggested by survey findings, as it requires “instant translation” of
the speakers’ thoughts and ideas. This aligns with the research literature which points
out ESL speakers, especially those who are not proficient in the language, are
constantly in translation mode, slipping between their mother tongue and English in
their minds to find the most appropriate words or concepts to convey. One can
conclude that the degree of challenge faced in communication is determined by the

69
speaker’s ability to translate and the level of pure-language in the communication
channel.
2. Educational level and duration of English-based education affect ESL
employees positively.
Respondents with a longer period of English-based education are more
English-competent than people with less English-based education and experience a
lower degree of challenge in English communication tasks and language usage in the
workplace. Given the fact that English is the primary medium in most tertiary
institutions in South Africa, longer exposure to English-based education or training
programmes would help ESL speakers improve their English proficiency. On the other
hand, these research findings can also explain the findings of Posel and Zeller’s
research in 2011 which reveal that the younger Africans (below 30 years)
outperformed an older group (over 30 years) in English reading ability. The younger
generations would have had more access to secondary and tertiary education after
the end of apartheid in 1994. The survey findings also reveal that the majority of the
respondents believe English-based education and training programmes are most
effective and beneficial to both individuals and organisations.
3. Duration of English-based work experience and different time points of
career affect ESL employees positively.
Respondents with longer English-based work experience are seemingly more
English-proficient, and experience a lower degree of challenge in English

70
communication tasks and English language usage than respondents with shorter
periods of English-based work experience. This aligns with the findings that all
respondents report a significant improvement in terms of English proficiency levels
and fewer English communication and language challenges, when comparing the
present time with the start of their work careers. The interview feedback states that
communicating work-related, technical concepts is easier than social conversation
because the technical terminology and concepts are used every day in the workplace
and can be learnt and more easily applied by ESL speakers. One can conclude that
through continuous practice of and exposure to English, respondents gradually
improve their English proficiency. This is echoed by the survey findings that the
majority of the respondents believe working in an English-only environment helps
them overcome the challenges of English communication.
From the analysis of the research findings above, the English proficiency level can be
improved and the degree of communication challenges reduced in the workplace
when ESL employees are given the necessary support to enhance their career
development. Therefore, the primary and secondary objectives have been achieved in
the study and the research proposition that the communication challenges of ESL
employees become decreasingly significant in the course of their working lives can be
accepted.

71
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
Communication is the sharing of meaning through the transmission of information,
and sharing the understanding of a situation facilitates communication (Akmajian,
2001; Dibb et al., 2006), because without a level of understanding between the sender
and receiver of a message, the message may be delayed or distorted and
communication breaks down (Choudhary & Rathore, 2013). The choice of the
transmission channel depends on the complexity of the message and the volume of
information that a communication channel can handle effectively (Robbins et al.,
2009; Dibb et al., 2006). People in organisations communicate, and through
communication, they achieve the work of the organisation (Sheridan, 2007). In the
field of business, the most important skill required is good communication skills as
these will determine a person’s growth in the organization (Bitla, 2013). The
emergence of English as the lingua franca of international business over the past two
decades has been accompanied by growing interest in issues relating to language
choice and use in the rapidly globalising business and professional world (Evans,
2013).
English is the accepted language of use and most respondents prefer English as their
language of choice in the South African work environment (Bechan & Visser, 2005).
The historical and socio-economic background of South Africa has resulted in a very
diverse picture of English proficiency across the four major race groups with less than
10% of the country’s population using English as their first language. Understanding
issues relating to language choice and use among EFL and ESL speakers and
different groups of ESL speakers in the business and professional world is
increasingly necessary.

72
It was stated in Chapter 1 that the purpose of this study is to explore the
communication and language challenges perceived and experienced by ESL
employees in the course of their working careers. The primary objective is to
investigate the extent to which language challenges change in the course of ESL
employees’ working careers. The secondary objectives were to investigate the
change of English proficiency among ESL employees in the course of their working
careers and to investigate the impact of the change in English proficiency levels on
language challenges faced by ESL employees during their working careers. The
research proposition, which is derived from the primary objective and secondary
objectives, is that the communication challenges of ESL employees become
decreasingly significant during the course of their working lives.
The findings of the literature and the survey are summarised and discussed according
to the primary and secondary objectives and research proposition in Chapter 1.
Recommendations to individuals and organisations, as well as areas for possible
future research, will also be discussed in this chapter.
5.1 Major findings
The findings of the literature and the survey are summarised and discussed below.
Firstly, communication challenges in English are a reality for ESL speakers in work
environments. Four types of communication challenges for ESL employees are
highlighted in Chapter 2, namely ‘lost in translation’, career constraints, language
segregation and the communication gap among ESL employees. As pointed out by
Osman et al. (2008) in South Africa ESL speakers have historically and culturally
different first and second languages with unrelated grammar and vocabulary usage

73
and are thus be required to learn not only the knowledge conveyed through the
medium of the second language but the second language itself. ESL speakers often
experience great difficulty expressing themselves because they have to translate
ideas from their mother tongues into English. The survey findings confirm that
speaking English is the most challenging task for ESL speakers because it requires
“instant translation” of thoughts and ideas in speakers’ minds. Given the dominance of
ESL employees in the South African workplace, using English as the only
communication medium could be a significant challenge for ESL employees, resulting
in various degree of “lost in translation” experiences.
Although there is no indication of career constraints and language segregation in the
survey findings, some respondents indicate that improved English proficiency levels
would be most helpful in building confidence levels at work, improving work
performance, participation in team activities and discussions, departmental or project
team work and relationships with colleagues or superiors. Further research on these
two types of challenges in the South African workplace is recommended.
The study by Crossman and Kite (2007:147) of a Management in Business
Administration (MBA) community-service learning project in the US, finds that
international students experience difficulties understanding each other in English. A
study of a multinational organisation in Hong Kong by De-Babcock and Tanaka
(2013:281) reveals that in a situation where English was used to communicate,
Japanese participants struggled to communicate with one another in English because
they were unable to express themselves due to inadequate vocabulary and sentence
structures. The communication gap between ESL speakers is evident in both studies.
Bechan and Visser’s study (2005), found that in the South African banking
environment, Xhosa employees are “quieter” in meetings due to their limited English

74
proficiency. Bechan and Visser (2005) also found that different communication styles
can be identified as a cause of conflict in the corporate environment, and
communication barriers due to language differences could lead to opposing
perceptions of meetings by different cultural groups. It is possible that a
communication gap among ESL employees also exists in the South African work
environment.
The second finding of this research is that exposure to English has a positive
influence on ESL speakers. The literature suggests the implementation of a
communicative approach to language learning which focuses on the individual needs
of language learners, enabling them to acquire the necessary skills very rapidly since
the language is relevant to their world (Patel, 2015). An application of the
communicative approach is the introduction of “English Corner” sessions at various
Chinese universities, as described by McCrum (2011:3). The English Corner is a
regular informal gathering for hundreds of Chinese students whospeak to one another
only in English. The literature also notes the proliferation of English public speaking
courses across universities in China due to public demand (Wan, 2013). The goal is to
enable ESL speakers to use and practise English more frequently. The feedback from
this survey is that communicating work-related or technical concepts is easier than
normal social conversation because the work-related terminology and concepts are
frequently used and can be learnt and applied easily by ESL speakers. The majority of
the respondents believe that working in an English-only environment will help them
overcome the challenges of English communication.
The literature also suggests that ESL employees would gain significant advantages
such as improved self-esteem and access to more job opportunities from workplace
literacy programmes, and employer-sponsored language classes would improve

75
employee satisfaction and performance (Madera, 2011; Gallo, 2002). The doors of
opportunities for ESL and LEP employees would be opened, providing them with the
chance of a better future, especially if literacy education focuses on empowerment
and transformation in the workplace. This is supported by the survey findings which
reveal that educational level and duration of English-based education affect ESL
employees positively. Respondents with longer English-based work experience are
seemingly more English-proficient, and experience a lesser degree of challenge in
English communication tasks and English language usage than respondents with less
English-based work experience. Respondents also report a significant improvement in
terms of English proficiency levels and a reduction in challenges in both English
communication and language usage, when comparing the time they first started work
to the time when the survey was conducted. It was concluded in Chapter 4 that the
primary and secondary objectives had been achieved in the study and the research
proposition that the communication challenges faced by ESL employees become
decreasingly significant during the course of their working lives was therefore
accepted.
From the analysis of the research findings above, it can be concluded that through
continuous practice of and exposure to English, English proficiency levels can be
improved and the degree of communication challenges encountered by ESL speakers
reduced, thereby enhancing their career development, as opposed to the challenges
they encountered at the beginning of their working careers.
5.2 Recommendations
Firstly, both individuals and organisations should acknowledge English is a second
language for 90% of South Africans. People might not necessarily speak the same

76
language or even speak in the same way in multilingual and multicultural contexts in
the South African workplace, but the communication challenges, at both personal and
organisational levels, are the direct outcome of the communication process which is
strongly affected by language proficiency. Depending on the situation and the
receivers targeted, the level of formality and complexity of the English used in
communication need to be adjusted. The challenges noted in the literature and the
survey findings, including ‘lost in translation’, career constraints, language
segregation within an organisation and a communication gap among ESL speakers,
are a reality in the workplace.
Secondly, the study has established that the communication challenges faced by ESL
employees become less and less significant during the course of their working lives. If
ESL employees are given the necessary support to improve their English proficiency,
the time needed to overcome challenges is also likely to be reduced. To enable
employees to take the first steps to achieving such an objective, the literature has
outlined some possible solutions for employers that can be linked to two key
components, a transactional communication model and general management
strategy.
The first solution is aimed at improving the “encoding” ability of the senders, in other
words, the language proficiency of employees. One of the key findings in the research
is that exposure to English is positive for ESL speakers, a good example of which is
workplace literacy programmes. The most effective method of improving English
proficiency is through training and education, and providing more opportunities for
practice in an English-only environment. It is important to have a good understanding
of what comprises good spoken language assessment practices in order to identify
good communicators for the organisation. If employers intend to promote and develop

77
ESL employees, consistent long-term ESL education programmes would be
beneficial. The study of Chinese universities reveals the contribution of English
speaking and public speaking courses to improving English proficiency. Home
language proficiency is strongly related to English language proficiency. It is also
important that ESL speakers read more, in both their home language as well as
English, since the development of writing is closely associated with a proportionate
increase in reading skills.
The second solution is to select communication channels that require less
pure-language and instant translation. The extensive use of non-verbal
communication strategies and visual aids to assist ESL workers is recommended.
ESL speakers should be encouraged to use concept maps, which are graphical tools
for organising and representing ideas, and learners’ photographs of their workplace
and lives would facilitate the compilation of an educational curriculum based on the
themes which are important to them. Complex non-verbal behaviours should be
avoided unless the meaning is explicitly understood.
Lastly, the long-term solution would be to practise multicultural management within
the organisation. If language translation is underpinned by a common culture and
value system, understanding can be created and well-received by those sharing such
systems. Multiculturally competent leaders show higher degrees of non-verbal
positivity than leaders who are not multiculturally competent, and multicultural
competencies are effective in overcoming communication barriers in the workplace.
Improved English proficiency can deliver multiple benefits including higher levels of
confidence and performance at work, more participation in team activities and
discussions, better relationships with colleagues and superiors as well as greater
support for departmental activities and team projects. It is difficult to establish one-off,

78
concrete solutions for language problems in the workplace, but organisations need to
be aware of the extent of the problem and its impact on effective and meaningful
communication within the company. Under-investment in language skills and
communication could constrain the growth of the business and lead to employees
leaving the organisation.
5.3 Recommended future research
This research was conducted under the assumption that respondents would be
expected to answer the survey questionnaires accurately and honestly. It is hoped
that the study objectives would make a contribution to increasing understanding of the
challenges encountered by ESL speakers in the workplace.
The sample size of the research study may not be large enough to draw conclusions
about ESL employees in general. Also, broader aspects such as culture, geographical
regions, race and other demographic factors can also affect communication but are
excluded from the research. Therefore, the survey of a larger population sample
across different and broader sectors and geographical regions and a survey of
cultural diversity and its impact on language usage in communication in South African
workplaces are recommended for future research.
In order to provide a more accurate measurement of the level of English proficiency of
ESL employees during the course of their working lives, it is recommended that
English literacy assessments be conducted on the same group of research subjects
consistently over a fixed period of time in a future study.

79
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APPENDIX A- LETTER TO SURVEY PARTICIPANTS
Dear fellow colleagues:
My name is Dean Teng, and I am currently busy with my research dissertation of
MCom at University of Johannesburg (UJ). The topic of my research is
“Communication Challenges of English Second Language (ESL) Employees”.
South Africa is known as a rainbow nation because of its highly diversified cultures
and demographics of historical domestic residents as well as immigrants from various
regions across the globe. However, according to the South African Survey
Demographics 2010/2011 report only 8% of the total South African population have
English as the home language. Since English has become the primary language of
communication in workspace, communication in English can be very challenging for
majority of employees.
The objectives of this research are to investigate that what are the communication
challenges perceived by ESL employees in workplace and to what extent do their
actions assist them in overcoming these challenges.
I would like to invite you to participate in the online survey of the research. The
survey shall take you 10-15 minutes to complete. Your participation of the research
will be voluntary. All data collected from the research are treated confidentially and
will be used for research purpose only. The names of participants will also not be
disclosed.
I am grateful for your support of the research. Should you have any queries or
encounter any problems regarding the research or survey, please feel free to contact
me on [e-mail] or (xxx)xxx-xxxx .
Yours faithfully,
Dean(Hungting) Teng
Consultant

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APPENDIX B- SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
Section A: Personal & Background Information
1. Please enter your name in full:
Surname:
First Name:
2. Gender
Gender Male
Female
3. Age
4. Nationality
Nationality South African
Foreign National
5. If South African, please state you ethnic group:
Black
White
Asian
Colour
6. If foreigner, please state your country of origin:
If foreigner, please state your country of origin:
7. Please state your language(s) of speaking:
Home language (1):

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2nd language (2):
3rd language (3):
4th language (4):
8. Education level:
Primary School
High School
Certificate
Diploma
Undergraduate Degree
Postgraduate Degree
9. Area of work:
Operation
Management
Support
10. Please provide the lengths of following questions in full years:
Living in South Africa:
English-based education:
Total work experience:
English-based work experience:
Section B: English Proficiency level, challenges experienced and actions taken to
overcome challenges
11. Please rate the level of your English proficiency, when you BEGAN WORKING and AT
PRESENT:
At Beginning At Present

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At Beginning At Present
Speaking
Listening
Reading
Writing
12. Please rate the degree of challenge for you to conduct the following communication tasks in
workplace (in each category), when you BEGAN WORKING and AT PRESENT:
At Beginning At Present
1) SPEAKING
1.1) Social conversation
1.2) Telephonic
conversation
1.3) Group/Team
discussion
1.4) Business
presentation
2) LISTENING
2.1) Social conversation
2.2) Telephonic
conversation
2.3) Group/Team
discussion
2.4) Business
presentation
3) READING
3.1) Social emails
3.2) Business emails
3.3) Presentation slides
3.4) Business
reports/cases
4) WRITING
4.1) Social emails
4.2) Business emails

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At Beginning At Present
4.3) Presentation slides
4.4) Business
reports/cases
Other (please specifies & provides rating)
13. Please rate the challenges you face in English communication in workplace, when you
BEGAN WORKING and AT PRESENT:
At Beginning At Present
1) SPEAKING:
1.1) Pronunciation &
Articulation/Accents
1.2) Vocabulary & Diction
1.3) Grammar
1.4) Sentence structure
2) LISTENING
2.1) Understanding Context
2.2) Vocabulary & Diction
2.3) Grammar
2.4) Sentence structure
3) WRITING:
3.1) Spelling
3.2) Vocabulary & Diction
3.3) Grammar
3.4) Sentence structure
4) READING:
4.1) Understanding Context
4.2) Vocabulary & Diction
4.3) Grammar
4.4) Sentence structure

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Other (please specifies & provides rating)
14. Please rate to what extent the following actions would help you to overcome the English
communication challenges in work place:
Work in English-only company/environment
Enrol in English-based education & training courses
Enrol in education & training course on English language
Join English public speaking society/clubs (e.g.
Toastmasters)
Practice more English communication with others
Do nothing; it will be improved over time
Other (please specifies & provides rating)
15. Please state that how would the improved English proficiency contribute to or benefit your:
Level of confidence at work
Performance at work
Job satisfaction
Participation in team’s activities and discussions
Relationship with colleagues or superiors
Department or project team
Other (please specifies & provides rating)
16. How would you rate your company's effort to English Second Language (ESL) employees to
overcome the communication challenges and improve English proficiency in work place?

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Enforcing English-only policy in company
Organising or sponsoring employee to enrol on education &
training courses on English language
Organising or sponsoring employee to enrol on English-based
education & training
Forming or sponsoring employee to join English public speaking
society/clubs within company (e.g. Toastmasters)
Do nothing; it will be improved over time
Other (please specifies & provides rating)

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APPENDIX C- SAMPLE POPULATION
No. Employment Status ESL Email
1 Employee Yes Yes
2 Employee Yes Yes
3 Employee Yes Yes
4 Employee Yes Yes
5 Employee Yes Yes
6 Employee Yes Yes
7 Employee Yes Yes
8 Employee Yes Yes
9 Employee Yes Yes
10 Employee Yes Yes
11 Employee Yes Yes
12 Employee Yes Yes
13 Employee Yes Yes
14 Employee Yes Yes
15 Employee Yes Yes
16 Employee Yes Yes
17 Employee Yes Yes
18 Employee Yes Yes
19 Employee Yes Yes
20 Employee Yes Yes
21 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
22 Employee Yes Yes
23 Employee Yes Yes
24 Employee Yes Yes
25 Employee Yes Yes
26 Employee Yes Yes
27 Employee Yes Yes
28 Employee Yes Yes
29 Employee Yes Yes
30 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
31 Employee Yes Yes
32 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
33 Employee Yes Yes
34 Employee Yes Yes
35 Employee Yes Yes

96
36 Employee Yes Yes
37 Employee Yes Yes
38 Employee Yes Yes
39 Employee Yes Yes
40 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
41 Employee Yes Yes
42 Employee Yes Yes
43 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
44 Employee Yes Yes
45 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
46 Employee Yes Yes
47 Employee Yes Yes
48 Employee Yes Yes
49 Employee Yes Yes
50 Employee Yes Yes
51 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
52 Employee Yes Yes
53 Employee Yes Yes
54 Employee Yes Yes
55 Employee Yes Yes
56 Employee Yes Yes
57 Employee Yes Yes
58 Employee Yes Yes
59 Employee Yes Yes
60 Employee Yes Yes
61 Employee Yes Yes
62 Employee Yes Yes
63 Employee Yes Yes
64 Employee Yes Yes
65 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
66 Employee Yes Yes
67 Employee Yes Yes
68 Employee Yes Yes
69 Employee Yes Yes
70 Employee Yes Yes
71 Employee Yes Yes
72 Employee Yes Yes
73 Employee Yes Yes

97
74 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
75 Employee Yes Yes
76 Employee Yes Yes
77 Employee Yes Yes
78 Employee Yes Yes
79 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
80 Employee Yes Yes
81 Employee Yes Yes
82 Employee Yes Yes
83 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
84 Employee Yes Yes
85 Employee Yes Yes
86 Employee Yes Yes
87 Employee Yes Yes
88 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
89 Employee Yes Yes
90 Employee Yes Yes
91 Employee Yes Yes
92 Employee Yes Yes
93 Employee Yes Yes
94 Employee Yes Yes
95 Employee Yes Yes
96 Employee Yes Yes
97 Employee Yes Yes
98 Employee Yes Yes
99 Employee Yes Yes
100 Employee Yes Yes
101 Employee Yes Yes
102 Employee Yes Yes
103 Employee Yes Yes
104 Employee Yes Yes
105 Employee Yes Yes
106 Employee Yes Yes
107 Employee Yes Yes
108 Employee Yes Yes
109 Employee Yes Yes
110 Employee Yes Yes
111 Employee Yes Yes

98
112 Employee Yes Yes
113 Employee Yes Yes
114 Employee Yes Yes
115 Employee Yes Yes
116 Employee Yes Yes
117 Employee Yes Yes
118 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
119 Employee Yes Yes
120 Employee Yes Yes
121 Employee Yes Yes
122 Employee Yes Yes
123 Employee Yes Yes
124 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
125 Employee Yes Yes
126 Employee Yes Yes
127 Employee Yes Yes
128 Employee Yes Yes
129 Employee Yes Yes
130 Employee Yes Yes
131 Employee Yes Yes
132 Employee Yes Yes
133 Employee Yes Yes
134 Employee Yes Yes
135 Employee Yes Yes
136 Employee Yes Yes
137 Employee Yes Yes
138 Employee Yes Yes
139 Employee Yes Yes
140 Employee Yes Yes
141 Employee Yes Yes
142 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
143 Employee Yes Yes
144 Employee Yes Yes
145 Employee Yes Yes
146 Fixed Term Employee Yes Yes
147 Employee Yes Yes
148 Employee Yes Yes
149 Employee Yes Yes

99
150 Employee Yes Yes
151 Employee Yes Yes
152 Employee Yes Yes
153 Employee Yes Yes
154 Employee Yes Yes
155 Employee Yes Yes
156 Employee Yes Yes
157 Employee Yes Yes
158 Employee Yes Yes
159 Employee Yes Yes
160 Employee Yes Yes
161 Employee Yes Yes
162 Employee Yes Yes
163 Employee Yes Yes
164 Employee Yes Yes
165 Employee Yes Yes
166 Employee Yes Yes
167 Employee Yes Yes
168 Employee Yes Yes