Criminology Study Material with Solved Assignments and Essays

This study material covers various topics related to Criminology including criminal psychology, nature-nurture debate, serious crime, personality disorders, punishment, and more. It also includes a summary of Jeffrey Dahmer's crimes and his childhood. The content is suitable for students pursuing Criminology courses in colleges and universities.

CRIMINOLOGY

Table of Contents
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.....................................................................................................1
1: Research the role of Criminal Psychology in Australia – on what a criminal psychologist
does, where they will work, and what sort of tasks they have concerning their job?............1
2: Define crime – on how do we define crime?......................................................................1
3: Write on euthanasia following:..........................................................................................2
4: Explain the nature-nurture debate concerning crime?........................................................2
5: A) Why are twin studies and adoption studies important when studying crime?..............2
B) What do twin studies and adoption studies tell us about how crime is related to nature and
the environment?....................................................................................................................3
6: Write a summary of Jeffrey Dahmer - who they were, what they did, their crimes, their
childhood, and so on?.............................................................................................................3
7: A) Using the biological and environmental theories to explain crime, explain why you think
the person you discussed in question 6 became a criminal?..................................................4
B) Overall, that model/explanation do you think most accurately explains why the person you
mentioned in questions 6 & 7 became a criminal? There is no “right” answer here but explain
why you have come to your conclusion.................................................................................4
8: Define serious crime?.........................................................................................................5
9: Give five examples of serious crimes?...............................................................................5
10: Imagine you are giving a lecture to adults about the murder that is a two-page handout on
the topic covers.......................................................................................................................5
11: Do you think this behavior is stalking, or could it be regarded as “normal” pursuit
behavior that follows after a relationship has broken down?.................................................6
12: Carry out more research on this family and write a one-page essay on the Kallikak family.
................................................................................................................................................6
13: Define learning disabilities...............................................................................................7
14: Explain in about half a page why people with learning disabilities may not fully
understand that their behaviour is a crime..............................................................................7
15: Outline three criticisms of IQ tests...................................................................................8
16: Define psychopathology...................................................................................................8

17: Define personality disorder. List four examples of personality disorders.......................8
18: Write an essay on the personality disorder - Narcissistic – exaggerated self-worth, need
for admiration, grandiose........................................................................................................8
19: List four signs that shown in childhood that may indicate a child has the potential to
develop an antisocial personality disorder.............................................................................9
20: What is the prognosis for individuals with an antisocial personality disorder or
psychopathy............................................................................................................................9
21: Carry out library or internet research on the differences between females and males
committing the crime of shoplifting. Submit an essay on the findings from your set task. .10
22: Following on from question 21, why do you think these differences have occurred.....10
23: Write an information leaflet about sexual assaults in men and women that could be
provided to victims of assault. In your document address the following.............................10
24: Briefly explain how misunderstandings can arise because of how society and people
individually view sexual assault on men and women?.........................................................11
25: In Australia find out the rates of criminal behavior among young people. Submit your
findings.................................................................................................................................11
26: Define the term “young offender”..................................................................................11
27: What are the differences in offending between male and female young people............11
28: What factors are thought to influence whether a young person becomes an offender...12
29: Write an essay on how the police use psychology in their work. You may look at this topic
generally or focus on a particular area, such as eyewitness testimonies, criminal profiling, and
so on......................................................................................................................................12
30: Why is crime thought to be socially constructed?..........................................................12
31: Why are eyewitness testimonies not always considered to be reliable? Use relevant
psychological theory and research to support your answer..................................................12
32: Show two or three people you know a photograph/short video of a random person for five
seconds. Then take the image away. An hour later, ask them to describe the person or what
happened. Write down what they say. Then look at how accurate they were. If it is not
possible to ask other people to do this, carry out the test on yourself, perhaps looking at a
random face in the newspaper or online. Write a short report on your findings from the set
task........................................................................................................................................13

33: Write an essay (up to 2 pages or 500 words) on the impact of stereotyping in the
courtroom. First, carry out library or internet research into stereotyping in the courtroom and
use these findings.................................................................................................................13
34: Define juror authoritarianism.........................................................................................14
35: Define juror locus of control..........................................................................................14
36: A: Explain in one paragraph the idea of “belief in a just world”...................................14
B: How could “belief in a just world” affect how we view people on trial?........................14
37: Define punishment.........................................................................................................14
38: Explain the difference between punishment and negative reinforcement......................15
39: Write an essay on the type of punishments used in Australia. Research the means of
punishment used within Australia. Consider what model of punishment it is. Give examples
..............................................................................................................................................15
40: Define, in a paragraph or two for each, the following terms: Rehabilitation model of
punishment, Education model of punishment, An eye for an eye, and mirror punishment?16
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................18

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1: Research the role of Criminal Psychology in Australia – on what a criminal psychologist does,
where they will work, and what sort of tasks they have concerning their job?
Criminal psychologists used to study the behavior and motivation of criminals inspire them to
commit crimes. As per this, they are usually researched to understand the psychology of
criminals and their behavior before committing any crime. Moreover, they used to determine
why crimes are occurring, and they are usually consulting with the policy authority and
department to identify the suspects or to provide expert testimony that is major associated with
court cases, moreover, the criminal psychologist also may be engaging and indulge with the
criminal profiling. Moreover, as criminal psychologists usually analyze the criminal after or
before committing a crime, they used to evaluate the motive of the crime and what are the
rationale and significance allow a criminal to commit a crime on such a level may render create
destruction of ethics and humanity. While taking the contrast of purpose and their role in generic
to specific, it is evaluated criminal psychologist helps to look into thoughts, intent, purpose and
the action is based on the felons and all that builds the criminals behavior. In this, they can reveal
the important facts are stated about the criminal to help in such as breakthrough that is based on
cases. They play a vital role in making understanding criminals and their behavior may be
helpful to demise their brain activity is become psychologically criminals (Barrio and et. al.,
2022).
2: Define crime – on how do we define crime?
In simple language, a crime is defined as an act that is unlawful in the manner and has some of
the certain punishment by the authority that is based on state and other major regulatory law
based department. In this, the term crime has a simple and accepted definition that is conducted
with a motive that is unethical for the human right and breaks the law that has standard and
formulated to maintain the social and community balance. In other words, the crime is also
defined as an act that is maybe transgression and omission that is a breach of the law that is
usually because it has aggressive behavior for the society is punishable by the law of the state of
authority. Crime is usually considered and stealing something, harming some with an intention or
creating such condition may harm someone in such a level maybe die. Moreover, crime has no
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standard definition but it is completely an unethical approach that is used to violate the law and
harm the right of humans, and their rights come under the progression of law.
3: Write on euthanasia following:
 Explain what it is.
 Explain why it is thought to be a crime.
 Explain why others consider it not to be a crime.
 Explain your viewpoint.
Moreover, the euthanasia of this is to describe that the crime is done by criminals have their
motive may be money or something and it is done to harm someone. These all phenomena are
violating the law due to the behavior that is based on unethical manner. To implement such kind
of law within community and society is to create and formulate quality of life and people need to
under their boundaries and they do not harm someone in such intention to kill and violate their
rights. This is thought to be a crime because they are violating the rules and regulations that may
create harm with the number of people norms and their values and the societal moral and norms
is conducted to preserve the humanity among people for others. In this, the other is considered to
be a crime because every single lane of ethics and morality have their values. These values and
ethics and their rationale and significance that is mentioned in such a way that provides the
aspect and generate right for the people who live in community and social group (Brisman and
et. al., 2018).
4: Explain the nature-nurture debate concerning crime?
They are involving with the belief that the social environment is act as the main reason why
people or any individual commit crime. In other hand, crime occurs and is fostered by the
biological traits that is eventually lead to develop behaviour associated with criminal activity.
5: A) Why are twin studies and adoption studies important when studying crime?
The twin, adoption, and family studies are defined as the most appropriate and common method
that is helpful to test on criminals to identify if there is any type of correlation is demonstrated.
As per this, while analyzing the criminal behavior that there is adopted children, their biological
and adoptive parents are usually used that is used to recommend for this experiment. Twin
studies are helping to support the contention that based on heritable traits may enhance the risk
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for criminal behavior. In context with crime, the extension is similarly observed in MZ twins is
greater than in DZ twins, a genetic hindrance that may be implicated (Clarke and et. al., 2018).
B) What do twin studies and adoption studies tell us about how crime is related to nature and the
environment?
Twin studies and adoption studies are defined as the way that helps to investigate the effect of
nature and nurture. Moreover, nature is completely referring to some elaborated discussion that is
based on biological causes for the rationale behavior. This is defined as the means that help to
influence the gene that has been inherited from the source or the aspect from the biological
parents. However, the twins offer some glimpse to share with family and allow scientists to
decipher to what extent is caused by genes and how much this is shared with the environment.
However, the adoption is usually helped scientists to evaluate the impact that is based on two
identical individuals raised in various aspects of the environment.
6: Write a summary of Jeffrey Dahmer - who they were, what they did, their crimes, their
childhood, and so on?
Jeffrey Dahmer was an American serial killer who usually took the lives of 17 males between the
years 1978 and 1991. Moreover, Dahmer sought the men are mostly from the region of African
and American at the gay bar, mall, and nearby bust stop, lured with the promise of money or sex
and offer them alcohol that is laced before the strangling them to the position of death. As per
this, they are indulging in a sex act with the corpses before that are dismembering them and they
are disposing of them. Moreover, keeping the skull or the genital as souvenirs. However, they are
frequently taking photos of the victim at the process on the murder, so Dahmer could recollect
each act afterward and relive the experience. In this, Dahmer was captured in 1991 and sentenced
to the proposition of 16 words. Moreover, he was killed by the inmate Christopher in 1994 at the
prison (Cullen and et. al., 2018).
The childhood history of Dahmer was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin on May 21, 1960. He was
elaborated as an energetic and happy child until the age of 4 when the surgery is held for the
double hernia seemed to change the boy. He became withdrawn based on following the birth of
his younger brother and the family show frequent moves. Moreover, he was completely
disengaged, tense, and largely friendless during their teenage. He also claims that his compulsion
towards necrophilia and murder started at the age of 14 and this is appearing due to the
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breakdown of parent marriage and their acrimonious divorce a few years this triggered and
transform the thought into action.
7: A) Using the biological and environmental theories to explain crime, explain why you think
the person you discussed in question 6 became a criminal?
Biological theories of crime are referring to the linkage between the certain biological condition
and an increased tendency that is engaged in criminal behavior. Moreover, the fact that is
identical twins that is more similar with the phase genetically than the fraternal twins are
recommended that the existence of the genetic hindrance on the criminal behavior is analyzed.
Whereas, the environmental theory of crime is defined as environmental criminology that has
basic to study about the crime occurs within the geographical area and it is also approaching a
positivist approach that recommended crime is influenced if not caused by a person spatial
environment (Herzog-Evans and et. al., 2021).
As per this, Dahmer has accepted through the biological and environment both because the
separation of their parent’s acts as a catalyst forces Dahmer to commit a crime and after a while,
he has biologically accepted the truth to commit a crime with himself due to change in nature and
factor render. The environment theory is also evaluated that the Dahmer make their region in
brain that aspires them to commit a crime and kill others for the inner peace. This phenomenon is
gone for a prolonged time and that change the nature and nurture of killers.
B) Overall, that model/explanation do you think most accurately explains why the person you
mentioned in questions 6 & 7 became a criminal? There is no “right” answer here but
explain why you have come to your conclusion.
Moreover, the above-stated model is a biological model of crime indicates that the Dahmer have
weak mental strength from their childhood due to the uncertain activity is abnormal at such age.
Moreover, after a long time, he completely suffers that condition is not appropriate at such ages
and this occurrence of a situation change their thinking pattern and behavior, he was partially
suffering from the mental disease, and after a prolonged time, when Dahmer reach up to the age
of 14, he was previously gone through the high range of situation makes them strong and he is
also thinking that the life is bias. With this contrast, the Dahmer face the separation of their
parents due to the factor of divorce, and this encounter and acts as a catalyst that process the
action of committing a crime. This all stage of development for crime happens due to change the
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thought process. It is also analyzing that the process is biological and creates a scenario that
makes Dahmer a serial killer (Hillyard and et. al., 2021).
8: Define serious crime?
Serious crime is defined as an offense that is an indictable offense that can be brutal. If a person
who is over the age of 18 and more is charged with a serious offense, as per this, it can be taken
or dealt with the proper summarise way and in the case of a person under the age of 18 years are
further included any indictable offense is the person has been detained. Felonies is defined as the
most serious type of crime and they are often classified with the degree, with the first degree that
have felony being the most serious. They are majorly including terrorism, treason, murder,
robbery, and others.
9: Give five examples of serious crimes?
Some examples are based on serious crime are murder and negligent manslaughter, rape,
robbery, aggravated assault, and gang violence, property crime usually consists of burglary,
larceny, motor vehicle theft, and arson, and so on (Howes and et. al., 2017).
10: Imagine you are giving a lecture to adults about the murder that is a two-page handout on the
topic covers
 How you can define murder
 Statistics of victims (male/female)
 Reporting behavior (whether the crime is reported or if not, why not)
 Other information related to murder.
Make it clear, use bullet points, define special terms, etc.
 Murder is defined as the killing of another human with any justification or any valid
excuse that is unlawful for humanity and society as well. This state of mind may depend
upon the jurisdiction, distinguishing murder from the other form is based in homicide
such as manslaughter.
 The major of the victim is divided into their age group compiles male and female.
Moreover, with the contrast of age group, the 15 percent is from the age 12 to 17.
However, from the age group of 18 to 34, 54 percent. As per this from the age 35 and 64,
the percentage is about 28 and last is more than the age of 64 have 3 percent.
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 As per this, the major of murder reports are mentioned and with this, the authority takes
action against this by getting punished by the criminal with based law. In this, some of
the cases are not listed or reported due to the personal factor where people compromise
by hiding the crime from the authority.
 The additional information is related to the murder is usually based on five elements. This
includes that a person was killed, accused killed him, the killing was attended by any of
the qualifying circumstances that are mentioned in Art 248, and the killing of the
individual did not base on the parricide and infanticide (Kort-Butler and et. al., 2021).
11: Do you think this behavior is stalking, or could it be regarded as “normal” pursuit behavior
that follows after a relationship has broken down?
With the aspect of psychology, the behavior of stalking is normal because when two people
are connected emotionally, then this acts as normal behavior for the people to stalk. While on the
level of jurisdiction, this is unlawful behavior because breaching someone's privacy is a
punishable act as per the law. In the contrast to the case study, the behavior that is analyzed is
unlawful and this requires strict action to prevent such kind of behavior. Whereas, Jane continues
to stalk and follow Andrew that is not appropriate as per the rule and regulations. Moreover, as
above mentioned, this is defined as the people may also understand that the mutual broke up
means a clear understanding for the getting separated from the each other. As per this, after a
time while people are usually stalking one another on different platforms such as social media
and so on. In the context of the case study, when Jane is getting drunk then called Andrew and
shares their though and cries and continuously want that Andrew back in her life where Andrew
already state that he is not interested. So, behavior from Jane's side is unethical.
12: Carry out more research on this family and write a one-page essay on the Kallikak family.
As per the contrast of genealogy, Goddard's claim about the Deborah Kallikak family that
have tree bore a curious and surprising moral tale. Moreover, the book follows the genealogy of
Martin Kallikak, Deborah's grandfather, who married with Quaker woman. During the
completion of the war, normally morally upright Martin dallied one time with a feeble-minded
barmaid. He impregnated her and then abandoned her. Moreover, the young Martin reformed and
they went upright life and became a respected New England citizen. All of the children are
coming with the factor of relationship where the identification is taken that there is no sign of
developmental disabilities. With the vision of Goddard, the child was born with a dalliance with
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the nameless feeble-minded girl. This is a single child and a male called Martin Kallikak (Lynch
and et. al., 2018).
With this all, there is another perspective that is associated with the Kallikaks that they
never diagnosed for the fetal alcohol syndrome. In terms of poverty and malnourishment,
prenatal alcohol exposure helps to create craniofacial and other physical anomalies that show the
account for their peculiar facial feature. Moreover, prenatal alcohol exposure may help to
damage the central nervous system that may result in reduced cognitive and behavioral
functioning that is parallel to the defined by Goddard.
13: Define learning disabilities
The concept of learning disability is generally a childhood disorder which is characterized by the
difficulty among certain skills such as writing as well as reading among people having normal
intelligence. The disability in learning can simply influences the capability to interpret such as
what an individual can see or hears or the capability to associate the relevant information from
various different parts of the brain. The disabilities in the learning can generally impact over the
person’s capability to solve the problems, plan as well as execute the task, effective
communication and can affect the management of everyday task (Pridemore and et. al., 2018).
14: Explain in about half a page why people with learning disabilities may not fully understand
that their behaviour is a crime.
People with learning disabilities may not understand the behavior of crime because due to the
low intelligence and hindrance in the activity of the brain. Some people with the disability may
be incapable of forming an intention that used to commit a crime that is based on the disability.
As per this, there is another criminal cat that is categorized as an assault that does not require that
the person is usually committing the offense that may be based on such intention. In addition to
this, the disability of intellectual can generally acknowledged by a particular damage among the
intellectual functioning alongside the difficulties in their daily tasks, an effective communication,
and the personal concern. In this, the routine activities theory can conceptualise the victimisation
in relation with an interaction among available victim, the absence of a capable guardian and a
motivated offender. In this, they are not enough capable to have a analyse themselves in such a
way which create a behaviour that acknowledge their crime. The people with the learning
disabilities could not recognise value beliefs and morals. As per this, they usually not make a
difference between ethical and unethical scenario due to the difference between perspective and
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perception. The people with the learning disability not fully understand the unethical behaviour
is comes under the act of crime.
15: Outline three criticisms of IQ tests
This is analysing that the IQ has several critics who argue that the test fails to assess many of
essential domains of the psychological functioning that they are often pointing to the non-
cognitive domain that particularly includes social-emotional abilities, motivation, empathy,
morality, and interpersonal skills (Pycroft and et. al., 2018).
16: Define psychopathology
Psychopathology is defined as the study of abnormal cognition that is based on behavior and
experience that may differ according to the social norms and rest that related with a construct
that is dimmed to the social norms with the set of a particular time. Moreover, in simpler words,
it is defined as the study of psychological and behavioral dysfunction is occurring in the presence
of mental illness or the pattern of social disorganization. In this, psychotherapy refers to the use
of a psychological method that is based on routine interaction and communication that help to
change individual behavior and enhance wellbeing and resilience.
17: Define personality disorder. List four examples of personality disorders
A personality disorder is defined as the way of thinking, feeling, and behaving that influences the
individual from the expectation of the culture that majorly causes distress or problem functioning
and is associated with last over time. The other definition of personality disorder state that it is a
type of mental disorder in that the rigid and unhealthy behavior of an individual that shows
abnormal thinking, functioning, and behavior is analyzed.
Examples of personality disorders are Antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality
disorder, histrionic personality disorder, and narcissistic personality disorder (Rafter and et. al.,
2018).
18: Write an essay on the personality disorder - Narcissistic – exaggerated self-worth, need for
admiration, grandiose
In this, the individual with the Narcissistic personality disorder usually greatly shows a lacking
of empathy that is based on the recognition that is helpful to determine the feeling that is
associated with the need of others. They are overconfident and they look at themselves as an
extraordinary individual and they feel a strong sense of entitlement and that based on admiration.
8

A narcissistic individual who does not achieve that is based on themselves and that not likely
have the opportunity to seek treatments. Moreover, these individuals represent than one percent
of the clinical population. In this, some people are completely suffering from NPD and also
facing the issue of mood disorder. moreover, the NPD patient only believes in the relationship
that is based on benefits that provide them in the same way. They are an inflated sense of
outcome that have a basic evaluation and their identified accomplishment (Sampson and et. al.,
2017).
Patients with the aspect of narcissistic personality have a disorder that is based on
exaggerating that shows the level of achievement and talent and they are surprised when they do
not receive that is based on recognition that they are expecting. The patient is optimized and
show the factor of self-absorption and have a tough time to respond other need of others.
Moreover, the narcissistic individual and their unstable process that is based on fluctuation that is
done between the extreme of self-praise and self-contempt. Criticism may haunt them and leave
them self-humiliated and based on the degraded, hollow, and empathy that is based on an
unnecessary pattern. They may be unwilling to take part in such a way take part in a situation in
that there is risk and they are possibly defeated, The NPD is also get associated with anorexia
nervosa, substance-related disorder, and other personality disorders (Xenakis and et. al., 2021).
19: List four signs that shown in childhood that may indicate a child has the potential to develop
an antisocial personality disorder
Animal cruelty: When children show some indication that they beat and show no any kind of
love towards the animal and try to harm then it is a clear indication of antisocial disorder.
Breaking of law and school rules: Disobeying the rules and law that is associated with the
children is also a sign of antisocial personality disorder.
Engaging in bullying or fighting: If the children are completely indulged in fighting and bullying
that leads to creating aggressive behavior and also raises the potential to develop the antisocial
disorder (Smandych and et. al., 2019).
Cruel and aggressive behavior towards the people: No feeling and emotional attachment towards
the people is also a sign of antisocial personality disorder.
20: What is the prognosis for individuals with an antisocial personality disorder or psychopathy
There is no cure for antisocial personality disorder. In this, the people are usually managing the
condition that is based on their lives. Moreover, the medication and therapy are helpful to cope
9

with the aspect of this disorder. The right treatment, diagnosis is helpful to adjust the behavior
and reduce the harm that is around. However, maintaining a healthy relationship and is useful to
support the factor of managing ASPF long term (Tewksbury and et. al., 2019).
21: Carry out library or internet research on the differences between females and males
committing the crime of shoplifting. Submit an essay on the findings from your set task
Males and females usually differ from each other and their criminal offenses are also showing
the difference between hurting someone and harming. As per this, in some cases, the offense is
similar such as murder and so on that is acted as same, and law is taking as for the both at the
same manner. In context with shoplifting, males are naturally more aggressive and physically
strong and thus, they are committing a more aggressive crime as compared with females. So, in
this case, if committing the crime of shoplifting the female is usually low as compared with male
due to strength and masculinity (White2017).
22: Following on from question 21, why do you think these differences have occurred
As per the question of 21, the major reason occurred from the previous year because the relation
between gender and criminality is strong and full of strength and is likely to remain so. In this, a
woman has the traditional aspect that is traditionally been less than the men who are committing
a violent crime, and the pattern that persists today. The rate of females in the crime or such form
of activity is less in that the crime is notably petty theft and fraud appear in the way to increase
or enhance.
23: Write an information leaflet about sexual assaults in men and women that could be provided
to victims of assault. In your document address the following
Sexual assault against women is described as an act that intentionally sexually touches another
person with the consent of a person or tries to physically force women to engage with the sexual
act against their will. As per this, the male also faces sexual assault where they are intentionally
sexually touching with their concern by female or male in that sometimes, they also force to
involve with the sexual act against their will. In this, the perpetrator in both cases are today is
from the heterosexual sex or the homosexual sex. In both, cases, the psychological and physical
effects are observed in that fear and they used to avoid in going somewhere and maximum time
they are in the home (Sullivan and Lugo 2018).
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24: Briefly explain how misunderstandings can arise because of how society and people
individually view sexual assault on men and women?
While taking the aspect of society, the majority of sexual assault is derived from men towards the
men as per the perception of society, somehow, it is correct as per the rate and data that provide
evidence. Whether the major misunderstanding in the society for the sexual assault on men is
taken as a minor factor whereas if any women face sexual assault then it acts as big issue among
the society and community.
25: In Australia find out the rates of criminal behavior among young people. Submit your
findings
There is 46.949 youth offender are processed against the policy in the year 2019-20, in this, the
rate of 1914 offender per 100,000 people from the age of 10 to 17 year, as per this, there is some
principle offense type act as intended to cause injury with the 9,447 offender that is approx. 20
percent. The theft is approx. 6,657 that is analyzed up to 14 percent. In this, the illicit drug
offense with the number of offenders 5121 with 11 percent of ratio (Maxwell and Maxwell
2020).
26: Define the term “young offender”
A young offender is a young person that is convicted for a crime or any criminal offense. As per
this, the criminal justice system has a set of foundations that is helpfully deal with the young
offender who is different from the adult’s offender but in various countries, the term young
offender applies in the various age group that depends on the age of criminal responsibility in
that particular country.
27: What are the differences in offending between male and female young people
In the previous year, it is identified that the male has committed more crimes while taking the
comparison of female. In this, Juvenile offender is more general and they have male and female
who have typically less educated and have a more mental health issue and problem, more
aggression, and a higher rate of abuse and poverty than a juvenile who is not related with any
type of crime and criminal behavior. In this, the youth victimization and offending are depending
on both males and females. As per this, the pattern and trend are different from the sexes. As per
this, in the last 12 months, the interview is being taken in 2009 and 2010 that show that 8 percent
11

of males aged between 15 and 24 years of experience at least one-time assault while compared to
4.1 percent of males (Ruffinengo and Walsh).
28: What factors are thought to influence whether a young person becomes an offender
A large number of individuals is having the factor and characteristic that has been associated
with the formulation of delinquency that is based on juvenile. Moreover, these all factors are
completely based on a factor that majorly includes age, gender, complication during the phase of
pregnancy, and childbirth. However, the behavior that is used in this is based on aggressiveness
and substance use.
29: Write an essay on how the police use psychology in their work. You may look at this topic
generally or focus on a particular area, such as eyewitness testimonies, criminal profiling,
and so on
The psychology field is an important part and plays a role in promoting as well as advancing the
public policy that is related to social justice problems. As it encourages the enhancement in
wellbeing as well as lives in a society. In this, the knowledge, as well as the expertise, consists a
major contribution in promoting effective law enforcement behaviors and various strategies.
Criminal profiling in a department is used to identify the culprit of a crime by identifying the
characteristics of the criminal that is purely based on the analysis of the crime that is been
committed. The psychological services that are used by police departments involve an evaluation
of police applicants, training and educating the police officers, evaluation of duties and job tasks,
and carrying out fitness for duty assessments (Barton and et. al., 2019)(Kabiri and et. al., 2019).
30: Why is crime thought to be socially constructed?
The key idea in the aspect of the sociology of crime and deviance is that crime that is meant as
he socially constructed that provides information that is based on criminal behavior. It is not
determined by the process or operation that is based on social factors. The major cause of crime,
the introduction of a new act of parliament that helps to change the law constantly that indirectly
changes the nature of the crime.
31: Why are eyewitness testimonies not always considered to be reliable? Use relevant
psychological theory and research to support your answer
Eyewitness testimony is the potent form of evidence that helps to use in convicting the accused.
In this, subject to unconscious memory and their distortion and the practice that is biases even
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such factor that based among the witness confidence. As per this, the memory can be remarkably
accurate or remarkably inaccurate. However, try to recount the scene in a different chronological
order that is used to explain from the end to the beginning. This helps in providing the cues that
show the significance that accessing their memory of the events.
32: Show two or three people you know a photograph/short video of a random person for five
seconds. Then take the image away. An hour later, ask them to describe the person or what
happened. Write down what they say. Then look at how accurate they were. If it is not
possible to ask other people to do this, carry out the test on yourself, perhaps looking at a
random face in the newspaper or online. Write a short report on your findings from the set
task.
An eyewitness is the main factor in the criminal justice system as they can confidently identify
the criminal as well as confirm that they saw the offenders when they are committing a crime. In
a particular crime, it has been identified that a number of an eyewitness can vary according to the
criminal case such as it can be one or two. It is depending on the eyewitness that what they want
to share with the justice system as they can easily hide the suspect by denying the identification
or they can easily help the justice system by identifying the suspect and the justice system are
obliged to believe the eyewitness (Cauffman and et. al., 2017).
33: Write an essay (up to 2 pages or 500 words) on the impact of stereotyping in the courtroom.
First, carry out library or internet research into stereotyping in the courtroom and use these
findings
Various studies have shown that there is a certain type of crime, defendants from the specific
ethics background that are more likely to be found guilty when this is compared with other
defendants from the background. Moreover, it also helps in taking the reflection that is based on
over-representation for the certain minority group prison of the Australian system. This study has
the main aim to determine that gender and race to stereotype usually influence juror judgment. In
this, there is a various factor that used to influence the stereotyping survival among the jury
deliberation. Whether the factor is usually influenced the decision that is done by the impact of
stereotypes on their verdict. This all is expected that this will lead to creating an understanding of
when the juries are functioning with a fair hand and unbiased manner, therefore, they promote a
fairer legal system for all people who require justice with a proper concept of decision (Weekers
and et. al., 2019).
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34: Define juror authoritarianism
Juror authoritarianism is defined as legal authoritarianism that usually has a broad term that
explains the constellation of beliefs that is held about the legal system that explains that the
relevance to the juror power of decision making that explains the legal aspect and their system in
the wide aspect.
35: Define juror locus of control
The locus of control is defined as the psychological concept that usually provides the information
that is based on strong people who used to believe that they can control the situation that is based
on experience that may affect the lives and other people. In this, with the term of a juror, the
locus of control in such segment reduces the complication that may trigger to having an act of
crime. This may affect the experience of factors that may affect their lives.
36: A: Explain in one paragraph the idea of “belief in a just world”
The just-world theory indicates that people want to believe that they are living in such a
world where good things happen to good people and the bad thing is associated with bad people.
Therefore, explanations are related to such kinds of aspects that elaborate on the terms and
conditions. Moreover, everyone is harvested what they want to sow. In this, the just is the
tendency and ability to believe that the world is just and that people get what they deserve in the
end.
B: How could “belief in a just world” affect how we view people on trial?
In this, the strong belief in a just a world related with the greater acceptance of and less
dissatisfaction with the negative events in one life and also, it helps to provide a positive
approach for the good ones. Belief in a just world for the other is related to the negative
phenomena where the victim is blaming and victim derogation observed in such kind studies that
are based on trials (Elmas and et. al., 2021).
37: Define punishment
In simple words, punishment is defined as the act of punishing or anyone suffering that has pain
or the loss that helps to serve that they have retribution. Moreover, the punishment is also
referred to as how an offender can stop from doing offenses that is against the person, property,
and the government. As per this, the punishments can be various types like the deterrent,
rehabilitative and restorative factor that acquire about the factor of punishment that based on law.
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38: Explain the difference between punishment and negative reinforcement
The major difference that is associated between punishment and negative reinforcement is that
negative reinforcement occurs when the certain stimulus is usually an aversive stimulus is
removed when the particular level of the behavior with any person is exhibited. All aspects of
negative reinforcement, it used to enhance the behavior of a person. Whereas, with the aspect of
punishment they focus on individual improvement, and thus, it helps to reduce the behavior that
is based on a criminal basis (Silver and et. al., 2018).
39: Write an essay on the type of punishments used in Australia. Research the means of
punishment used within Australia. Consider what model of punishment it is. Give
examples
Punishment for past criminal conduct is an important part of any criminal justice system. It
is a significant amount of academic literature on the underlying justification for punishment that
is generally controlled by two particular theories. These theories of punishment include
utilitarian and retributive theories. In utilitarian theory, it states that the punishment is given
based on its benefits that exceed its destructive effects. The main purpose of conducting this
theory considers that punishment contains the potential to decrease the crimes in an area. In
retributive theory, it states that justice needs that offenders should suffer when they break the
laws as the response to crime are proportional to their offense. There are many types of criminal
punishment that are used in Australia. Its types include retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation,
restoration, incapacitation, and so on. The deterrence of criminal punishment contains an aim to
prevent future crime and can further focus on the specific as well as general discouragement. The
type of punishment that seeks to prevent future crime by modifying a criminal's cognitive
functions comes under rehabilitation. This punishment typically contains various programs such
as mental counseling, educational programs, and so on for criminals. As the justice system's goal
is to overcome the crimes that are committed again and again by the released criminals. They do
this by flexibly mixing in the various programs as a part of criminals' sentencing. In this, the
judges use mostly an approach such as restoration. As in this approach, the offenders listen to the
feelings of criminals that why they commit the crime and also the purpose of committing the
crime.
In Australia, the justice system uses prisons and community correction to punish criminals.
The community corrections here include non-custodial punishments like parole, probation, and
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community services. In Australia, the death penalty has been destructed as well as the
punishments like corporal are no longer used. The highest form of punishment in Australia is life
imprisonment that is generally the most severe penalty that is been available to the authorities.
As this kind of imprisonment is generally imposed in the case of murder and some of the severe
cases such as rape and sexual assault, etc., the courts in a particular state as well as territories can
impose life imprisonment without doing parole and then order the criminals to spend their rest of
the life in prison. In context with sentences, these are the punishments that are given for guilty
suspects. In Australia, probation is the most frequently used criminal sanction that is generally a
sentence that a guilty person serves in the community in place of imprisonment. The prisons in
Australia are generally operated by state-based correctional service systems for the custody of
minimal, average well as supreme, and the supermax security of the prisoners that are
condemned in state and national courts and the prisoners on remand. The most intense
punishment by law that can be imposed in Australia is life imprisonment (Wilson and et. al.,
2020).
40: Define, in a paragraph or two for each, the following terms: Rehabilitation model of
punishment, Education model of punishment, An eye for an eye, and mirror punishment?
Rehabilitation model of punishment: In this, most used and originate theory of punishment is
based on rehabilitation. In this, the major idea that has the main purpose is that the punishment is
to apply on the treatment and training to the offender so that they can be made an off the capable
factor with the offender that they understand the issue and problem and the significance of life
and try to get the return to the society and functioning as a law-abiding member of the social
group or community. This model has a core aim that provides significance to treat an offender in
such a way that return to their society and community while learning ethical behavior.
Education model of punishment: In this model, the major focus or the main aim is to educate
the offender that helps to build a positive environment with them and they configure the ethical
aspect and behave according to this. As per this, the number of the offender is committing a
crime due to social need and low income. Moreover, the aspect of education in punishment to
educate them and learn a new skill and after completing their punishment they must do some
professional activity rather doing behavior that is related with the crime.
An eye for an eye: This quote or the word emphasizes that an eye for an eye is related to action
and reaction. In simple words, the mean of an eye for an eye indicates that people should be
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punished according to how they are offended. For example, if someone hurts anyone, they should
also be treated as same in return.
Mirror punishment: In this, mirror punishment is defined as the penal form of poetic justice that
explains and reflects the nature or means of the crime. It is based on the physical punishment as a
form of retributive justice. Moreover, the practice that is based on repaying a wrongdoer is
benevolent (Ben Yair 2020).
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