Criminological Theory: A Sociological Lens

This criminology assignment delves into the realm of criminological theory, focusing on different perspectives such as general strain theory and differential association theory. It examines the causes of school bullying through empirical testing of these theories. The assignment also explores Merton's strain theory in detail, analyzing its strengths, weaknesses, and relevance to understanding deviance within a functionalist framework.

CRIMINOLOGY THEORY

The discipline of criminology is comprised of plethora of evidences and theories which
explain distinct phenomenons which are prevalent in this academic area. Some of the theories
which are present makes a comparison of nature and nurture to demonstrate the various
criminological instincts. The present discussion shall focus on the Strain Theory propounded by
King Robert Merton, and is based on the ideas of nurture as well as environmental aspects. It is
interesting to note that Strain theory has been derived by the Anomie theory of Emile Dukheism.
It has been noted that this theory is of normlessness and could be explained with an example of
late 19th century wherein the Europeans emigrated from rural to more urban environments, in
pursuance of Industrial Revolution (Merton's Strain Theory of Deviance, 2016). The various
economies of the world such as both European and American were undergoing evolution,
accompanied by fusion of cultures and this led to an increased confusion among the society. This
is known as Anomie wherein the normal for yesterday is no more considered normal today.
Durkhesim through this theory attempted to explain the social condition prevalent in France.
Around this time Robert Merton made a contribution by analyzing the American society and the
enormous influence of the characters of economy and society. However, his work successfully
made a distinction mark in 1950s when various sociologists sought to understand occurrence of
crime even during the time of economic growth. Through the strain theory, it opined by Merton
that crime and delinquency are a result of the extent of confirmation and commitment to the
prevalent cultural values (Merton's Strain Theory, 2017). Further this relation was explained
irrespective of the structural as well as economic conditions.
The strain theory of Merton can be characterized as the modern time theory which
explain the environmental factors which lead to commitment of crime by people. It is believed
by this theory that the social structures present within a society operate to create pressure over
the people to indulge in different forms of criminal activity. The pressure so created on people is
to accomplish certain socially acceptable goals, irrespective of the fact that the person has the
means to do so (Lilly, Cullen and Ball, 2010). This leads to development of strain on the citizens
to indulge oneself in varied crimes. Some of the examples of this theory is getting involved in
selling drugs or prostitution for gaining financial security. Strain under this theory can be
classified into Structural and Individual. The former refers to processes existing at different
levels of the society to affect the manner in which different people perceive their needs. For
instance in the event of existence of an inadequate structures and the inherent regulations, the
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perception of individuals in relation to opportunities and means shall be framed accordingly
(Patchin and Hinduja, 2010). On the other hand, the latter reflects the frictions which an
individual has to go through for selecting a medium for accomplishment of the needs. Hence, in
the case of significant goals of society, an individual may perceive achievement as more
important than the ways to adopt the same.
It has been explained by Merton that a society has the power to advance deviance to a
large extent. It is believed by him that all the socially accepted goals operate to pressurize the
citizens to act in a confirmatory manner. It has been observed that in pursuance to the same
individuals are forced within a particular system or include themselves in a deviant subculture in
order to successfully accomplish the desired goals (Moon, Hwang and McCluskey, 2011). It has
also been observed by Merton that in the event of gap between the societal goals (in relation to
finances and so on) and the present status of an individual, it is most likely that strain may occur
in such a situation. Agnew (2011) has highlighted some of the ways adapted by people when
facing a situation of strain. The first way is of conformity, with the assistance of which citizens
pursue the concerned goals through certain ways which are widely accepted in the society.
Secondly, innovation can be adapted to accomplish the goals, through certain unconventional
methods. It has also been observed that these unconventional methods may be undertaken in the
form of unapproved means. For instance stealing could be pursued to attain financial security
and fulfil the societal demands. Thirdly, Ritualism is adoption of more modest as well as humble
ways to achieve these goals. In such cases all the methods so adopted and practised are socially
acceptable and may attain less elusive targets. The next way is of Retreatism wherein individuals
choose to escape from such situations and disapprove of both cultural goals as well as different
measures to obtain them (Lilly, Cullen and Ball, 2010). Lastly, certain individuals make a choice
of becoming rebellions and develop their own goals. Hence, these people completely reject the
ascertained cultural goals as well as means and replace them with their own ideas.
In furtherance to these specific ways propounded by Merton it is also recognized by him
that these could be situations wherein a balance cannot be struck between these cultural goals
and the various means to achieve them. These cases may develop if society does not make
available enough means for certain individuals to accomplish the different goals set out for them.
Thus, in result of which unpleasant emotions may develop in the form of strain as these people
are not able to achieve what they intend to. Jang, Song and Kim (2014) have stated that in such
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situations individuals choose one of the above mentioned ways given Merton, which can also be
termed 'modes of adaptation'. On the other hand Cullen, Wright and Blevins, (2011) has
highlighted that the concept of differential values, wherein a conflict situation may arise between
the social values. In such situations a person undergoes value strain as the different beliefs of the
society are competing in the concerned individual's life (Ford, 2014). This may also give rise to
strained situations where the person shall be left in a dilemma of choosing one of the two cultural
systems.
Agnew (2015) after thoroughly going through the theory has highlighted one of the
weaknesses which is faced by the application of this theory. It has been stated that the theory can
be effectively applied to a very restrictive class of people. The lower class of the society who is
generally devoid of enough resources provides best application of this strain theory. In addition,
to the lower class the disadvantaged class can also be mentioned as they also have a limited
means of resources which can be deployed for achievement of the ascertained and widely
accepted goals. Hence, there exists an overemphasis of the role played by social class of
individuals (Merton's Strain Theory, 2017). The primary rationale behind the same is that the
entire theory revolves around adaptation of different means for achievement of the set targets,
which can be made possible only through employment of various resources (Agnew R and
Brezina, 2010). Further, it says that only in the event there exists a gap between the availability
of resources and achievement of targets, individuals are made to undergo strain. In pursuance to
this it is important to highlight that paucity of resources is generally prevalent only within the
lower and disadvantaged class of people, and hence the theory shall be best applied on these
class of people. Thus, it has a very restrictive scope of application. In order to further this
thought, it has been noted by Taylor, Walton and Young, (2013) that due to the limited
application of this concept there is no justification for occurrence of white collar crimes in the
society.
It was further stated that the perpetrators undertaking these criminal activities are always
available with other legal and legitimate measures as well as opportunities. Hence, in the wide
spectrum of deviant and criminal actions existing in the society, this theory stays inadequate to
illustrate the occurrence of these white collar crimes (Agnew and Kaufman, 2010). It can be
inferred that the narrow scope of this theory primarily covers street crimes, which are generally
rampant among the lower class of people. As against the other white collar crimes which have
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been prevailing only in the middle and upper class of the society. Moreover, as noted by Cheung
and Cheung, (2010) the driving force for these white collar offenders is highly sophisticated and
there is no connection with the availability of resources. Apart from these criminal activities
which are classified on the basis of social classes, the theory also fails to explain all the crimes
which are based on gender inequality (Crime and Deviance Channel, 2009). It has been noted by
the author that there are many individuals who have indulged in crimes such as sexual
harassment, rape, discrimination and so on. On understanding the minds and surrounding of
these criminals it can be inferred that their does not exist any such gap in the goals and measures.
However, these people make a choice to get indulged in such activities. There is a complete
ignorance of inter as well as intra personal perspectives of a person, which lead to occurrence of
these crimes (Blackman, 2014). Moreover, there is not much empirical data of evidence available
to support the premise of this theory.
On the contrary, it has been observed by Williams III and McShane, (2010) that the
theory is also accompanied by various strengths. For instance the sociologists with the assistance
of this theory is enabled to demonstrate as well as describe the rationale behind people,
belonging to different social structures, indulging in varied forms of conforming and deviant
behaviours. The theory has empowered many to precisely explain the entire process of
development of specific behaviours which the offenders have gone through. Moreover, it
specifically interpret varied forms of responsive behaviours, which could be in the form of
innovation (Sociology: Criticism of Merton's Strain Theory: A Critique and How it Fits With the
Functionalist Theory of Deviance, 2016). It has been further explained that innovation could be
considered as a significant method reflecting both conformity as well as deviance. Therefore, this
is one of the greatest strengths as sociologists are enabled to clearly demonstrate the manner in
which an offender has been pushed by varied factors into practising certain forms of behaviour.
In addition, it has been observed by Thiou and et. al., (2010) that one of the biggest strengths of
Strain Theory is that it encompasses explanation for varied forms of responses to strain, which
could be in the nature of criminal as well as non-criminal. In addition, it presents a realistic
reflection of certain weaknesses which the world faces, and presumes existence of commitment
to all the materialistic objectives, being pursued by individuals in the society. Moreover, it also
distinguishes between various individuals belonging to different strata of the society and the
accompanied behaviour of each one of them to adapt varied ways for addressing the strain
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(McShane, 2013). As reiterated by Rebellon and et. al. (2012) that the strain theory effectively
demonstrates the manner in which people adapt to situations of social strain and occurrence of
criminal activities as well as deviance, in consequence of such social strains.
It can be inferred from the discussion that Merton's Strain theory studies the gap between
the societal goals and measures for accomplishment of the same. It is based on the social
structures existing within the society and the resulting pressure situation which is the cause of
commitment of crime. On the basis of these concepts and theories, sociologists have been
enabled to effectively demonstrate the manner in which people indulge in different criminal
activities. Moreover, it can precisely illustrate the various stages which have led to development
of a specific behaviour of the concerned offender. However, this theory is also subject to certain
weaknesses such as its application is restricted to only the lower class of society, and accounts
for only street crimes. There many other criminal activities such as white collar crimes, or those
arising from arising from gender inequality, which the strain theory of Merton is not able to
explain. In addition, there exists various inter as well as intra personal aspects behind a person
indulging in criminal activities, which are also completely ignored by the strain theory.
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REFERENCES
Books and Journals
Agnew R, Brezina T. Strain theories., 2010. The SAGE Handbook of Criminological Theory.
2010 Jul 6:96-113.
Agnew, R. and Kaufman, J. M. K. eds., 2010. Anomie, strain and subcultural theories of crime.
Ashgate.
Agnew, R., 2011. Revitalizing merton: General strain theory. The origins of American
criminology. 16. pp. 137-158.
Agnew, R., 2015. General strain theory and delinquency. The Handbook of Juvenile Delinquency
and Juvenile Justice. 2. p. 239.
Aseltine Jr, R. H., Gore, S., & Gordon, J. (2000). Life stress, anger and anxiety, and delinquency:
An empirical test of general strain theory. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 256-275.
Baron, S. W. (2006). Street youth, strain theory, and crime. Journal of Criminal Justice. 34
(2). pp. 209-223.
Blackman, S., 2014. Subculture theory: An historical and contemporary assessment of the
concept for understanding deviance. Deviant behavior. 35 (6). pp. 496-512.
Cheung, N. W. T. and Cheung, Y. W., 2010. Strain, self-control, and gender differences in
delinquency among Chinese adolescents: Extending general strain theory. Sociological
Perspectives. 53 (3). pp. 321-345.
Cullen, F. T., Wright, J. and Blevins, K. eds., 2011. Taking stock: The status of criminological
theory (Vol. 1). Transaction Publishers.
Ford, J. A., 2014. Poor health, strain, and substance use. Deviant behavior. 35 (8). pp. 654-667.
Jang, H., Song, J. and Kim, R., 2014. Does the offline bully-victimization influence
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Lilly, J. R., Cullen, F. T. and Ball, R. A., 2010. Criminological theory: Context and
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Williams III, F. P. and McShane, M. D., 2010. Criminology theory: Selected classic readings.
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<https://owlcation.com/social-sciences/Sociology-Essay-Strain-Theory-and-the-
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