Understanding Prejudice and Discrimination

This assignment delves into the psychological factors contributing to prejudice and discrimination. It requires you to analyze scholarly articles discussing various aspects of these phenomena, including intercultural contact, healthcare provider racism, and the impact of implicit bias on teaching practices. You will need to synthesize information from these sources to develop a comprehensive understanding of the complex issue of prejudice and discrimination.

Running head: CROSS-CULTURAL ATTITUDES, INCLUDING PREJUDICE AND
DISCRIMINATION
Cross cultural attitudes, including prejudice and discrimination
Name of the Student:
Name of the University:
Author Note:

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CROSS-CULTURAL ATTITUDES, INCLUDING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
Abstract
The main purpose of the assignment is to explain the aspects of cross-cultural attitudes by taking
into account prejudice and discrimination. The current research study had been conducted to
understand how biasness, discrimination and stereotyping can influence humankind in negative
ways. The current segment explains the theories by using relevant literature from valid sources
such as journal articles, books and websites. The researcher had used secondary sources of data
for conducting this particular research study. Limitations and gaps in the literature are properly
explained in this paper as to what made the research lack in some information and the future
scope of the study. The researcher had used interpretivism research philosophy and deductive
research approach for the research study. The theory used in the study explains the relationship
between culture as well as behavior. Hofstede dimensions model had been used in the study as it
is one of the prevalent theories that describes about culture for different countries. There is lot of
cultural differences present among individuals in different countries that are unique by nature.
The present study explains the cross-cultural attitudes that differ widely from one person to
another. Therefore, the study concludes that cultural aspects need proper attention and there
should be equality present among all the individuals and treated equally in this multicultural
world.

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CROSS-CULTURAL ATTITUDES, INCLUDING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
Table of Contents
Introduction......................................................................................................................................4
Literature Review............................................................................................................................4
Theory..............................................................................................................................................8
Research Questions........................................................................................................................10
Limitations or gaps in the literature...............................................................................................10
Research proposal..........................................................................................................................11
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................12
Reference List................................................................................................................................14

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CROSS-CULTURAL ATTITUDES, INCLUDING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
Introduction
This study deals with understanding the aspects of cross-cultural attitudes that involve
prejudice and discrimination (Thomas & Peterson, 2017). In the literature review section, proper
literatures are selected that explains the research topic on cross-cultural attitudes by giving main
emphasis upon the prejudice and discrimination factors. Theories are mentioned in the research
study that shows relationship between culture and behavior. Limitations and gap in the literature
review are properly defined in the research study with proper justification at the same time. The
research study mainly describes about the cross-cultural attitudes that had evolved from past
decades and how individuals behave or get treated in university or schools at different countries
and states. There are some stereotyping feeling that are present among the individuals where they
start presuming facts at the time of judging a person based on their race, religion, ethnic groups
and caste (Simpson & Yinger, 2013).
Literature Review
As rightly put forward by Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi (2014), cross-cultural activities
have been in existence from past decades that moves from recordingsocialalterations for
classifying the expressive as well as pertinentmagnitudes of socialinconsistency and using those
measurements for creation of sophisticatedtheoreticsimulations.
The first article is taken from “Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology” and title of the
article is “Contact and Attitudes towards international students in Australia” (Mak, Brown &
Wadey, 2014). The current article investigates the impact of intercultural contact between
domestic as well as international students on attitudes towards international students and possible

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CROSS-CULTURAL ATTITUDES, INCLUDING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
mediators of this relationship. Research shows that domestic undergraduates completes survey of
the quantity as well as quality of contact with international students, Intercultural
Communications Emotions (ICE) as well as levels of intergroup anxiety (IA) and attitudes
towards international students. Furthermore, Positive quality of intercultural contacts with less of
intergroup anxiety and more positive intercultural communications emotions as it is related to
more positive attitudes towards international students. In addition, Quality of contact exerts on
intergroup attitudes through intergroup anxiety as well as intercultural communications
emotions. As per the results, it explains the importance of addressing communication barriers as
well as emotions that gets associated at the time of promoting positive interactions between
domestic and international students. Therefore, it is suggested that theoretical integration of
intergroup as well as communication based perspectives consider attitudes toward linguistically
diverse outgroups such as international students.
The second article is taken from “Journal of General Internal Medicine” and title of the
article is “A Systematic Review of the Extent and Measurement of Healthcare Provider
Racism” (Paradies, Truong & Priest, 2014). The article highlights about major key driver of
racial disparities that is present in healthcare sector that is significantly little and how to best
measure this type of racism. The paper shows worldwide evidence for racism among the
healthcare providers and comparing it with existing measurement approaches for emerging best
practice and emphasis upon assessing interpersonal racism rather than systematic racism.
The third article is taken from “Association for Psychological Science” and the title of the
article is “Does Lower Cognitive Ability to Predict Greater Prejudice” (Dhont & Hodson,
2014). The article proposes a theoretical negative association between cognitive abilities as well

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CROSS-CULTURAL ATTITUDES, INCLUDING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
as prejudice. The literature section shows that negative association between cognitive abilities as
well as right wing social cultural attitudes that include authoritarian.
Cultural diversity or in other words multiculturalism is one of the ways that best
describes the presence of different cultures in the country and world as a whole. This diversity
highlights the presence as well as value of learned behaviors that include beliefs and other
features of many other ethnic groups in and across the world and nation (Shiraev et al., 2016).
It is understood that both prejudice as well as racism have caused enormous suffering
during the past history and denotes to a negative view of one group of people purely based upon
association of that group. Stereotyping properly goes hand in hand with prejudice. When
individual’s starts believing in some stereotyping activities, they get hold of some of the traits by
linking with a specific group of people (Levy & Macdonald, 2016)
As rightly put forward by Katz & Hoyt (2014), prejudice as well as discrimination has
been recognized throughout the human history. To explain in detail, prejudice links with the
inflexible as well as irrational attitudes and opinions that are held by members of one group to
other. On the contrary, discrimination means behaviors that get directed against other groups. If a
person is prejudiced, that means they are already have hold to preconceived beliefs about some
of the groups of people or in case socialactivities. Prejudices can be either positive or negative
where both the forms are difficult at the time of alteration. Here, the negative form of prejudice
leads to discrimination where the individual remain preconceived upon some of the attitudes.
Individuals who exercisejudgment do so because to defend the chances for themselves after
denying access and not deserving the same treatment.

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CROSS-CULTURAL ATTITUDES, INCLUDING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
As rightly put forward by Kite & Whitley (2016), cross-cultural research is considered as
cross-national where individual need to take into account all adequate sources that can
conventionally observe between the country differences. At ecological level, it is noted that
potentially relevant non-cultural variables like affluence or socio-economic status, religion as
well as population and religious practices. Each of the above listed variables varies depending
upon each potential effect that had on psychological process.
Most of the cross-cultural research shows the fact about university student samples that
become easy to trust that there is some degree of correspondence present among the samples due
to high level of teaching. In most of the cases, it is noted that requirements for entering into
universities varies from one country to another. For instance, in United States, it is very usual
factor that high school graduates gain an entrance into a university or college. On comparing
with other countries, university education considers as a luxury that is limited to members of
advantaged class (Kumar, Karabenick & Burgoon, 2015).
On analysis, it is found that religious backgrounds as well as practices consider as one of
the major difference that is present among different individuals and cultures at the same time.
Most of the people till now practice their religion strictly. There is however little or no departure
present between culture and religion in any era. Religion is so pervaded in the culture that both
get inseparable to each other (Hui et al., 2015).

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Theory
Figure: Theory on Cognitive ability and style of evaluation that shows the effects of
cognitive ability and style on intergroup outcomes through psychological process that
controls factors like education and socioeconomic status
(Source: Dhont & Hodson, 2014).
There are different theories that explain the Universal dimensions of cultural, variability.
The first theoretical background is Hofstede dimensions of work-related standards where there
are main dimensions present that explain the overall theory and this include Individualism versus
collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, long versus short-term orientation and
masculinity versus femininity (Levy & Macdonald, 2016). Theoretical frameworks used in the
study accounts for observing the country differences at the time of viewing at the psychological
processes that developing by making use of dimensions other than individualism versus
collectivism method. Some of the data even points out the fact about the importance of other
dimensions as well. In one of the study, it is noted that long-term orientation was considered as

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the best forecaster of country differences who follows the norms and regulations as it governs
emotional expressivity as well as emotional experience at the same time. In addition, the country
level-dimensions show the fact that individualism versus collectivism was highly connected as
compared to power distance. There were other correlations as well where dimensions had been
reported in the most appropriate way. In this particular dimension, value orientations correlates
with intellectual as well as affective autonomy along with egalitarian. From the viewpoint of the
researcher, it is noted that they mainly focus on individualism versus collectivism dimension
because the frameworks relates well with the overall concepts of the given research study
(Habtegiorgis, Paradies& Dunn, 2014).
The second framework is Scwartz dimensions of values where the dimensions include
embeddedness, harmony, hierarchy, affective autonomy, intellectual autonomy, mastery and
egalitarian (Levy & Macdonald, 2016).
These theoretical models of frameworks actually show the relationship between culture
as well as behavior. This means the model explains the environmental causation that is rooted in
anthropology as well as evolutionary psychology. In addition, it mainly explains about the
ecological factors like climate, population density as well as natural resources and group-level
affluence that influence the creation of cultures (Fishbein, 2014).
As far as individual level variable is concerned, researcher need to treat that as
personality traitsof individuals that completely varies from one individual to other. It is taken
into account that countries widely differs in aggregate levels of personality traits (Simpson
&Yinger, 2013).

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CROSS-CULTURAL ATTITUDES, INCLUDING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
As far as ecological level factors are concerned, it is considered that all the individual
level variables best describes about the culture part for establishing equivalence in samples on all
the demographic features. It is however noted that cross-cultural researcher are of the opinion
that full demographic assessment of samples help in examining the possible relationship between
demographic variables as well as psychological process of interest (Dinh et al., 2014).
Research Questions
1. What do you mean by cross-cultural attitudes that include prejudice and discrimination?
2. How far cross-cultural attitudes influences behavior at studying settings (schools or
university)?
3. What are the cultural theories or frameworks used to understand the relationship between
culture and behavior?
Limitations or gaps in the literature
The limitation to the present research study is lack of time that restricted the researcher to
conduct in-depth analysis of the given research study on cross-cultural attitudes. The gap was
present in the present literature where there was lack of information present regarding cross-
cultural attitudes and how far it influences individuals at certain level. There should be proper
ways suggested so that these cultural differences should be sorted out and there should be
equality present mankind (Dhont&Hodson, 2014).
One of the limitations of cross-cultural attitudes is that they are not empirically
defensibleclarifications where philosophy acts as a source of groups alterations. After the groups
differences are identified, researcher had generally concluded the differences that have cultural

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CROSS-CULTURAL ATTITUDES, INCLUDING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
source where there is documentation present among the peer groups that actually justifies the
documentations. There are wide ranges of ways where differences can be noted such as
countries, ethnic groups as well as racial groups (Dinh et al., 2014).
Limitation is drawn from the research paper because of the ways cultures are samples
such as country, cultural or racial groups and also due to cross-cultures studies that takes into
account comparisons of a small handful of groups (Simpson &Yinger, 2013).
The deductive approach is used by the researcher as they have taken assistance from
already published journal articles regarding the topic on cross- cultural attitudes and then
engaged in drawing conclusions at the end (Dinh et al., 2014).
Research proposal
This research proposal had been implemented that explain about the literature gap and
answers the questions. Here the main participants are the individuals who are engaging in
biasness, prejudice and discrimination activities (Simpson &Yinger, 2013). Be it schools or
universities, it is quite prevalent to find individuals giving importance or judging people based
on caste, religion and race. This should not be a case and all should respect each other culture
and give rise to a uniform society without any biasness in actions. The sourced materials used by
the researcher are peer-reviewed journal articles, books and websites. The research design used
in the study is descriptive one as the topic need descriptive analysis by the researcher. The
demographic data obtained by the cross-cultural researcher is one step forward in establishing
linkage between the cultures (Dinh et al., 2014).
One of the aspects that need to be discussed by the researcher in the future research is the
need to test competing cultural models (Levy & Macdonald, 2016). For more than 15 years from

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CROSS-CULTURAL ATTITUDES, INCLUDING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
now, it can be noted that one cultural construct had properly dominated the theory as well as
research (individualism versus collectivism). Future researcher need to keep in mind about
examining carefully all of the cultural constructs that are ready available for developing
theoretical models for predicting the differences as well as similarities especially in the
psychological study. The model used in the research study mainly incorporates multiple cultural
dimensions for interacting in better as well as nuanced views on how culture affects behaviors in
a given form of study.
The researcher philosophers had discussed about the tendencies that underlies the cultural
constructs that is treated as integral towards mankind. The main cultural construct was relevant
to a core of understanding of human nature on how to understand the theoretical developments as
well as empirical work especially in cross-cultural psychology (Simpson &Yinger, 2013).
The researcher had used interpretivism research philosophy in this research study because
the cross-cultural researcher had taken facts and information from secondary sources of data.
Interpretivism research philosophy deals with emotional side of human beings. Here the topic on
cross-cultural attitudes considers the qualitative factors (Banks, 2015).
Conclusion
At the end of the study, it is concluded that cross-cultural research had been generally
valuable for psychology as well as continues it in the near future. Past research showed cross-
cultural similarities as well as differences in most of the aspects of psychological functioning and
it had real importance in putting philosophy on the map of thinking from the viewpoint of
psychologists. From the discussion, it can be cited that culture is now significanttheoreticconcept
that incorporates models of human behavior as well as is an essential variable that need to be

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CROSS-CULTURAL ATTITUDES, INCLUDING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
considered in all areas of psychological research. It is pointed out that cross-cultural theories are
complex by nature as compared to past decades. It is argued that the research methods had
evolved for keeping pace with the theoretical developments where the researcher explore the
linkage between the culture as well as psychological process that relates with the theories.

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Reference List
Banks, J. A. (2015). Cultural diversity and education. Routledge.
Dhont, K., & Hodson, G. (2014). Does lower cognitive ability predict greater prejudice?. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 23(6), 454-459.
Dhont, K., &Hodson, G. (2014). Does lower cognitive ability predict greater prejudice?. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 23(6), 454-459.
Dinh, K. T., Holmberg, M. D., Ho, I. K., & Haynes, M. C. (2014).The relationship of prejudicial
attitudes to psychological, social, and physical well-being within a sample of college
students in the United States. Journal of cultural diversity, 21(2), 56.
Fishbein, H. D. (2014). Peer prejudice and discrimination: The origins of prejudice. Psychology
Press.
Habtegiorgis, A. E., Paradies, Y. C., & Dunn, K. M. (2014). Are racist attitudes related to
experiences of racial discrimination? Within sample testing utilising nationally
representative survey data. Social science research, 47, 178-191.
Hui, B. P. H., Chen, S. X., Leung, C. M., & Berry, J. W. (2015).Facilitating adaptation and
intercultural contact: The role of integration and multicultural ideology in dominant and
non-dominant groups. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 45, 70-84.
Katz, A. D., & Hoyt, W. T. (2014).The influence of multicultural counseling competence and
anti-Black prejudice on therapists’ outcome expectancies. Journal of counseling
psychology, 61(2), 299.

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CROSS-CULTURAL ATTITUDES, INCLUDING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
Kite, M. E., & Whitley Jr, B. E. (2016). Psychology of prejudice and discrimination.Psychology
Press.
Kumar, R., Karabenick, S. A., &Burgoon, J. N. (2015).Teachers’ implicit attitudes, explicit
beliefs, and the mediating role of respect and cultural responsibility on mastery and
performance-focused instructional practices.Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(2),
533.
Levy, S. R., & Macdonald, J. L. (2016).Progress on understanding ageism. Journal of Social
Issues, 72(1), 5-25.
Mak, A. S., Brown, P. M., & Wadey, D. (2014). Contact and attitudes toward international
students in Australia: Intergroup anxiety and intercultural communication emotions as
mediators. Journal of cross-cultural psychology, 45(3), 491-504.
Mak, A. S., Brown, P. M., &Wadey, D. (2014). Contact and attitudes toward international
students in Australia: Intergroup anxiety and intercultural communication emotions as
mediators. Journal of cross-cultural psychology, 45(3), 491-504.
Nagata, K. K. (2014). The scale of attitudes towards disabled persons (SADP): Cross-cultural
validation in a middle income Arab country, Jordan. Review of Disability Studies: An
International Journal, 3(4).
Paradies, Y., Truong, M., & Priest, N. (2014). A systematic review of the extent and
measurement of healthcare provider racism. Journal of general internal medicine, 29(2),
364-387.

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CROSS-CULTURAL ATTITUDES, INCLUDING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
Paradies, Y., Truong, M., & Priest, N. (2014).A systematic review of the extent and
measurement of healthcare provider racism. Journal of general internal medicine, 29(2),
364-387.
Rutland, A., & Killen, M. (2015). A developmental science approach to reducing prejudice and
social exclusion: Intergroup processes, social‐cognitive development, and moral
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Seligman, M. E., &Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014). Positive psychology: An introduction. In Flow
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Shiraev, E. B., Shiraev, E. B., & Levy, D. A. (2016). Cross-cultural psychology: Critical
thinking and contemporary applications. Taylor & Francis.
Simpson, G. E., &Yinger, J. M. (2013). Racial and cultural minorities: An analysis of prejudice
and discrimination. Springer Science & Business Media.
Thomas, D. C., & Peterson, M. F. (2017). Cross-cultural management: Essential concepts. Sage
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