Current Perspective in Bioscience

This document provides an overview of various topics in bioscience, including anemia, blood glucose regulation, cancer, eating disorders, food allergy, and clinical nutrition. It discusses the causes, symptoms, and treatment options for each topic, providing a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.

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CURRENT PERSPECTIVE IN BIOSCIENCE
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Anemia
Anaemia refers to a condition in which the hemoglobin levels of blood are lower than the normal
range by the patient sex as well as age. An individual with anemia experiences the following
symptoms like sleeping disorder called insomnia; always tedious, dizziness, headache,
breathlessness, and increase body susceptibility to infection. Anemia symptoms lead to one
problem to another in a circular manner starting with minimized productivity thus lowering
immunity; decreased income thus poor diet; expression of anemia continuous (Onyeneho, Corsi,
Kurpad, and Subramanian, 2019).
Anemia is tested by determining the percentage of red blood cells in total blood volume. Total
hematocrit and total hemoglobin make up the red blood cell count in the body. Hence they
require to be measured. Then look for mean corpuscular volume and show the RBC size and
observe the blood film as well. Diagnosis of Anaemia is based on sex, age and condition like
pregnancy where the hemoglobin and hematocrit amount in (g/dl) is used to determine (Tong et
al., 2019).
Anemia is classified into three H’s namely Haemorrhage, Haemolysis and Hypoplasia/ aplasia.
Causes of Anaemia:
 Hemorrhage that is excessive blood loss resulting from acute and chronic parasite
infection or childbirth.
 Hypoplasia that inadequate manufacture of RBC due to inadequate consumption of iron,
vitamin B12, and folate
 Hemolysis bursting of RBC due to inflammatory disorder, infection or heredity.

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Anemia treatment involves increasing amount of iron consumption, a variety of diet, and
infection control. Foods rich in iron are cereals, meat, liver, and uncooked green vegetables.
Vitamin B12 rich food is a dairy product, liver, and meat while folic acid is whole grain cereals,
fresh fruit, liver and raw green vegetables (Zhao, and Yu, 2019).
Sport Anaemia is false anemia that is common in athletes who need to have more Hb. Blood
plasma that houses RBC expands when athletes’ are training leading to an increase in Hb.
Blood glucose regulation and dysregulation
Blood glucose level is homeostatically regulated through hormones namely insulin; glucagon,
cortisol, catecholamines and growth hormones. Pancreas and liver of the body work together to
regulate any blood sugar condition. In the case of high blood glucose, the pancreas beta cells
secrete insulin thus stimulating fat cells to absorb glucose from the blood. Whereas for low blood
sugar, pancreas alpha cells secrete glucagon making the liver to release glucose to the blood.
Pancreas also secrete digestive enzymes and bicarbonate into the small intestine (Corem, Anzi,
Gelb, and Ben-Zvi, 2019).
Cortisol which is a steroid hormone released by the adrenal glands of the kidney and assist in
blood sugar regulation, by promoting protein breakdown for gluconeogenesis; stimulates glucose
synthesis, free fatty acids (FFA) mobilization and use as fuels. Growth hormone supports the
action of cortisol that is decreasing absorption of glucose by tissues; enhancing gluconeogenesis
in the liver and maximizing mobilization of FFA. Catecholamines specifically adrenaline and
noradrenaline assist in regulating blood glucose during exercise. It does this by increasing liver
glucose mobilization, FFA mobilization, and muscle glycogen as well as inhibiting glucose
uptake (Mamo et al., 2019).

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Diabetes is a disorder of carbohydrates that develops when insulin is produced inadequately or is
unable to function in the body; this leads to high sugar levels in blood and sugar also in the urine.
Diabetes metabolic syndrome includes central obesity, high triglycerides, insulin resistance, and
high blood pressure. Two types of diabetes are type 1 which is insulin dependent and type 2 non-
insulin dependent.
Diabetes results in several health problems such as renal disorders, coronary artery, and
hypertension. Also, foot disorders, cerebrovascular disease, and eye disorder. Treatment of
diabetes entails administration of insulin and well blood glucose monitoring — also, a well-
balanced diet and frequent body exercise and physical activity. The diabetic food pyramid is the
best dietary management plan of blood sugar dysregulation.
Cancer
Cancer is a group disease encompassing uncontrollable growth of cells which tend to proliferate
abnormally without dying. A cancer cell is immortal, poorly differentiated and highly
proliferated leading to gene damage that is passed to the next generation, accounting for
inherited cancer. Smoking also causes gene damage and UV photon as well as leading to cancer
that eventually forms a tumour (Sen, 2019).
Types of cancer are malignant tumours which spread to all another part of the body and are the
worst since they metastasize. The second type is being tumours which stay in one place without
spreading. The classes of cancer are neuromas, sarcomas, leukemias, carcinomas, and
lymphomas.
The general causes of cancer are factors like social-cultural, environmental, institutional,
behavioural, physiological, genetic, energy balance and dietary composition. Among the above

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mentioned factors, dietary has the highest estimate of 35 as the major causative of cancer.
Examples of diet that increases the risk to cancer are red meat, alcohol, animal and saturated fats,
refined carbohydrates, excess energy, and salt-nitrites. Cancer preventive diet entails a variety of
antioxidant-rich fruit and vegetables, whole grains, nut, healthy fat, and beans. They are limiting
all kind of processed foods, sugar, fried foods, refined carbs and unhealthy fats (Scheffers et al.,
2019).
Other risk factors for cancer are chronic inflammation, ulcerative colitis, dysplasia, and
adenocarcinoma. The table below shows inflammatory syndromes and associated cancers
(Komurcuoglu, Evkan, and Karakurt, 2018).
 Inflammatory bowel disease
 Gastric intestinal metaplasia
 Barrett’s esophagus
 Chronic hepatitis
 Chronic pancreatitis
 Oral leukoplakia
 Atypical adenomatous hyperplasia
 Ductal carcinoma in situ
 Prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia
 Bladder dysplasia
 Colorectal cancer
 Gastric cancer
 Esophageal cancer
 Hepatocellular carcinoma
 Pancreatic cancer
 Head/neck cancer
 Non-small cell lung cancer
 Breast Prostate cancer
 Cancer
 Bladder cancer

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 Cervical dysplasia
 Actinic keratoses
 Cervical cancer
 Skin cancer
Advanced nutrition and eating disorders
Eating disorder is an abnormal feeding habit where an individual tends to eat less or much than
the normal amount. The most common eating disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia
nervosa. Anorexia nervosa is a disorder where an affected person eats less diet and have a fear of
gaining weight even when they are extremely underweight (Stice, and Van Ryzin, 2019).
Symptoms of anorexia include: Intense fear of gaining weight, eating very restricted patterns,
irregular menstrual cycles, body shape becomes distorted and desire to become thin. An
individual with anorexia becomes prone to infection in areas like skeletal, neurological,
metabolic, and gastrointestinal. They also experience bone thinning, brittle hair, infertility and
nails brittle and a fine layer of hair appear on their body surface.
Sociocultural factors, maturity fear, can cause anorexia nervosa, and psychodynamic view,
dieting induced and family theory. However, anorexia nervosa can be treated using a dietary
strategy like inpatient refeeding, psychotherapeutic for the case of family theory, drug treatment
to increase appetite and use of antidepressants, counselling and guidance by a medical profession
and establishing good feeding programmes.
Bulimia nervosa is a famous eating disorder where people with it tend to eat a large amount of
food than normal. It is good to note that both anorexia nervosa and bulimia occurs at adolescence

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and young adult and the most affected are women than men. Symptoms are repeated episodes of
binge eating, self-esteem induced by body weight and shape, fear of weight gain and preventive
behaviours towards weight gain. Effects of bulimia nervosa are a poor immune function,
abnormal heart rhythms, and damage to teeth, salivary gland, stomach, esophagus, and pharynx.
Also, imbalance of fluid and electrolyte occurs. Bulimia nervosa can be treated using
antidepressant drug and psychotherapy (Franko, and Striegel-Moore, 2018).
Food allergy and intolerance
Food denotes any substance consumed to give nutritional support to a living organism. While
intolerance means a negative reaction of the body towards food substance after consumption.
Food intolerance can be caused by physical activities of the body like enzyme deficiency,
pharmacological effects like caffeine, direct gastrointestinal irritation due to chilli, alcohol, and
other spices. Also, bacterial activity has been shown to cause serious food intolerance (Crowe,
2019).
Gastrointestinal defences that protect it against antigen are chemical that acid in the track and
enzymatic like the gastric and pancreatic enzymes. Similarly, physical protection that comes
from the mucous coating and the tight junctions between cells. Immunological defences involve
the use of IgA and IgG antibodies during pre and post-absorptive process which binds all foreign
proteins that later get cleared by liver and spleen.
Food allergy is an abnormal reaction to food stimulated by the body immune response where it
sees specific foods as toxic and responds by producing symptoms. Such symptoms are Asthma in
case one is asthmatic, pruritis, diarrhoea, anaphylactic shock, vomiting, dermatitis, and nausea.
Coeliac disease is an inflammatory autoimmune small bowel disorder triggered by exposure to a

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fraction of gluten in, barley, rye, and wheat. Sighs include wasting, bloating, steatorrhea and
failure to flourish due to malabsorption of nutrient (Robbins et al., 2019).
Food aversions psychologically mediated responses to specific food types hence aversions hare
inorganic origin. Food aversion by the body may be due to unfamiliarity, neuroses, and
association to a particular trauma or drug triggered nausea. Diagnosis can be made via timing
ingestion of suspected food. Also, skin tests, RAST test, and the standard gold test can be used to
diagnosing.
Treatment encompasses eradication of offending food which is the best-proven therapy —
ascertaining the kind of food causing symptoms and avoiding them completely. Infants of a
parent who are both atopic should avoid nuts and seafood for the first three years of life.
Children may frequently outgrow milk and egg allergies. Drug therapies involve oral cromolyn,
prophylaxis in infants best achieved by breastfeeding and antihistamines.
Clinical nutrition
Clinical nutrition deals with the pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GIT) tract and all the
factors that pertain its health. Gastrointestinal activities are motility of contents, secretion of
digestive agents, digestion and absorption of nutrient as well as water. Gastrointestinal tract
pathology occurs at any place, may be mechanical, acquired or inherited (Deane et al., 2019).
GIT disease investigation is done by several methods used which include the use of barium
studies ultrasound, x-rays, MRL and CT scan. Others are Manometry, colonoscopy, endoscopy,
Gastric analysis, Laparoscopy, and bacterial cultures as well as serological tests. GIT diseases
are dysphagia where one experiences difficulties in swallowing and mechanical causes can be

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diverticula, tumours or strictures. Non-mechanical disorders are neurologic impairments, stroke
and Parkinson’s and xerostomia that is mouth dryness.
Disorder of GIT includes reversed transit and altered transit speed which leads to vomiting,
diarrhoea, and nausea. Megacolon is a secondary disorder that results from increased transit time,
where the intestines become enlarged, and the person's stomach enlarges. Gastritis is the
inflammation of the mucosa layer and the destruction of the stomach wall due to alcohol, drug or
infection. And it progresses to chronic condition till the stomach wall becomes extremely small.
Peptic ulcer diseases are caused by Helicobacter pylori that makes an ulcer to appear in the
mucosal lining of the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum. The ulceration exposes the walls to
gastric secretion which ends up causing autodigestion, risking the mucosal lining to
Haemorrhage. Other causes include smoking, stress, persistent NSAIDs and alcohol. Other types
of an ulcer include Aphthous ulcer, duodenal ulcer, and perforated ulcer.
Fungal infection causes oral candidiasis where the tongue appears with a white layer coating in
the inner part of it towards the esophagus. Hiatal Hernia is the protrusion of the upper part of the
stomach via diaphragm into thorax as a result of weak diaphragm muscle and short esophagus.
An additional type of hernia is an epigastric hernia, inguinal hernia, and diverticulosis (Sharma,
Mogensen, and Robinson, 2019).
Inflammatory bowel diseases and epidemiology factors that facilitate its prevalence are age,
ethnicity, sex and family incidence that is positive family history. The diseases include ulcerative
colitis where the colon mucosa form ulcer and the suggested causes are genetic, infectious and
immunologic. It can be treated by surgery and the use of steroids as well as broad-spectrum

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antibodies. Suffers have a high risk of getting colon cancer. Other inflammatory diseases are
Crohn's disease and coeliac disease.
GI tract cancers involve bowel polypectomy, benign duodenal tumour, cirrhotic liver and
gallbladder, and Ascites secondary to cirrhosis. Other disorders affecting GIT are gallstones,
pancreatitis, GIT bleeding, and GIT varicosities. GIT disease can be avoided via eating a low salt
diet, avoid alcohol, smoking, smoked food, and eat plenty of fruit, vegetables, and water.
Nutrition and cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular disease is a general word for all conditions affecting the blood vessels or heart
mostly caused by the accumulation of fat deposit in the heart or vessel. Apart from the
accumulation of fat, lack of physical activity of body and exercise increases the risk of
developing cardiovascular disease (Brandhorst, and Longo, 2019).
Other factors that cause atherothrombosis are diabetes, obesity, hypertension, age, gender,
genetics, hyperlipidemia, homocysteinemia, infection, and insulin resistance. There are multiple
clinical outcomes of atherothrombosis like a cerebrovascular disease, coronary artery disease,
and peripheral disease.
Pathogenesis of atherosclerotic plaque involves endothelial damage and begins by forming foam
cells, then fatty streak to extracellular fatty streak, lipid core where atherosclerotic plaque lipid
core is embedded in fibrosis and finally result to complicated atherosclerotic plaque. The plaque
rupture causes thrombosis hemorrhage (Bowen, Sullivan, Kris, and Petersen, 2018).
Any damage to the circulatory system also causes cardiovascular diseases. Additional types of
cardiovascular disease are heart failure, mitral regurgitation, arrhythmia, pulmonary stenosis, and

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heart attack. Benefits of exercise in preventing cardiovascular disease are increasing insulin
activity, prevents hypertension, improving lipid profile and maximizing body fat utilization.
Extensive research should be done on the following areas to find out the effect on the treatment
of cardiovascular diseases using carotenoids, plant sterol esters, flavonoids, phytoestrogens
isoflavones, and proanthocyanidins. Three mechanisms control hypertension results from chronic
high blood pressure and blood pressure. They include renal control associated with kidney,
neural control that deals with a systemic nervous system and the peripheral nervous system and
local control system regulate nitric oxide.
Blood pressure is determined by systolic peak pressure during LVC and diastolic pressure during
the relaxation phase. Nutrition consideration to fight cardiovascular disease include maintaining
body BMI of range 19-25 kg/m2, use of antioxidants, soluble fiber, reduce dietary fats and
consumption of enough calcium and potassium.
Metabolic aspects of sepsis and trauma
Metabolism denotes all the biochemical alteration that occurs in a living organism. Two types of
metabolism are anabolism that changes requiring energy and producing more complex
molecules. Catabolism, on the other hand, refer to change releasing energy and to yield simpler
compounds (Rontoyanni et al., 2018).
Sepsis is a life frightening medical emergency that occurs when an extreme body response to an
infection happens. Sepsis mostly is caused by an existing infection in an individual’s body that
stimulates continuous reaction all over the body. Sepsis requires immediate treatment or else it
can result in death. Trauma is an emotional or psychological response by an individual towards
an event or situation that is negative.

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Stress refers to the body’s manner of responding to any demand or threat to be able to handle the
situation. Stress can be manifested in several ways like physical, physiological and
psychological. The physiological manifestation of stress is by via disrupted homeostasis, and we
have two types of stress, eustress, and distress.
Trauma also causes death and research reveal that head injury as the highest death, followed by
haem shock, ARDS and MOF in a period of 30 days. Typhoid fever is associated with tissue loss
and maximum urine nitrogen or urea. Nitrogen loss is also associated with oxygen consumption,
temperature, and pulse. Stimuli of inflammations are trauma, toxins, burns, surgery, infection,
malignancy, ischemia, and pancreatitis (Van Wyngene, Vandewalle, and Libert, 2018).
Nutrition intervention for every phase of metabolism is as follows: Anabolic phase, during this
phase the person is not supposed to feed since it can result in kidney failure, liver damage and
dehydration. The building of energy should be slow and exogenous protein should be utilized to
form new tissue. Catabolic phase involves total parenteral nutrition as the initial path of feeding
by central line. However, gut inflammation may be present that limits the absorption of nutrients
and cons that increases sepsis risk due to loss of GIT integrity. During the Ebb phase, the body
processes are unstable; hence nutrition considerations are inappropriate, but all fluid requirement
should be met.
Energy balance theory and practice
Energy is the ability to perform things. The major source of energy is the sun, where the plant
absorbs light energy during photosynthesis and convert it into chemical energy used for
photolysis. Photosynthetic process in plant produces food that is consumed by the animals to get
energy after the digestion of the food in their body. Energy gives strength to a living organism.

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Cellular respiration is the reverse of photosynthesis where the stored energy informs of glucose
reacts with oxygen to produce CO2, H2O, and ATP energy. The ATP energy is then utilized in
during mechanical work, transport work or chemical work (Wild et al., 2018).
Components of the energy balance equation are total weight minus total energy expenditure
equals to weight change. Energy has got a risk factor if the not well balanced in any living
organism, where too high BMI increases the risk of mortality and very low BML also increases
the mortality rate. Undernutrition is where the energy balance is negative due to starvation
condition the body. The body starts metabolism of the body fat including the adipose tissue and
the skeletal muscle and heart muscle are atrophied. Gastrointestinal tract walls become thin and
dysfunctional, and death can occur when weight loss is 25% to 55% (Delzenne el at, 2018).
Marasmus and kwashiorkor are diseases that result from Undernutrition mostly affect the
children. Obesity is a high energy disorder and increases risk like menstrual problems, cancers,
gallstone formation, psychological problems, and osteoarthritis. Energy expenditure can be
measured via direct calorimetry that is examining the heat produced by the body directly or by
indirect methods. Energy balance data is useful for public health initiatives, institutional feeding,
and clinical application.
Conclusion
The module has the best information that has helped in expounding knowledge in areas that I had
shallow information. Nutrition determines the overall health of the people. Hence this area
requires continuous studies and research. Almost all kinds of diseases and disorders are nutrition
based, and proper awareness of dietary programmes should be formulated.

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