Table of Contents INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1 MAIN BODY...................................................................................................................................1 Cognitive continuum theory........................................................................................................1 Expected Utility theory...............................................................................................................3 Social Judgement theory.............................................................................................................5 CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................7 REFERENCES................................................................................................................................8
INTRODUCTION Decision making theories in nursing practices plays n crucial role for the practitioner is determining the best way to treat patients. Every patient in health care organisation is from different cultural background, beliefs and values. The differences in service users make difficult of nurses to mange equal care practices for all. Further, the report will outline three different theories that iscognitive continuum, expected utility and social judgement theories which support decision making of nurses. Thus, to make discussion effective one theory will apply to decision making in nursing practice in preparation forpost-exposure prophylaxis(PEP). MAIN BODY Cognitive continuum theory Cognitive continuum theory is proposed by Hammond, because according to this scholar cognition is the best practice which can support inclusion service of nurses. The author found out this theory to overcome the limitation of intuitive humanist model and systematic-positivist. In accordance to this theory, it is important for the nurses to make effective clinical and cognitive decision for healthcare practices. However, as per Cognitive continuum, it is important for the practitioners to work collaboratively with health care teams in order to support modern health care plans and procedure, The plan and policies of nursing are related to interpersonal working because it helps in reducing medical errors which arise due to lack of knowledge and information (Felder and Mayrhofer, 2017). The CCT theory of nursing practice is related to decision making process of health practitioner which regards to human judgement. Further, the theory considered as effective because it helps in focusing on both type of decision that is interpersonal health care teams and individuals nurses. The theory is three dimensional which comprise, cognitive mode, time to process and structure of task. Following theses elements of theory assist the partitioner in making effective decision with regard to changes. Its offers and effective management plan to nurse especially for the emergency cases which requires responsible and quick decision. CCT theory is related to paradigm for clinical decision making and its related to analytical process where two or more people groups group together for one clinical purpose. It offers theoretical framework of make decision which helps in differentiating intuitive approaches and analytical thinking.As per (Bombardini and Trebbi, 2012), it has been analysed that CCT theory is known as effective decision making process because it is focused on team working. IT states that clinical setting lacks familiarity which leads to miscommunication and communication 1
gap. However, it assists the nurses in setting collaborative working which helps in overcoming each other weakness. It is an effective plan because there are nurses who lack pharmacology knowledge, quick decision making etc. which are assisted in cognitive approach of working. Apart from interpersonal working, CCT approach is helpful for the individual nurses in managing effective decisionpost-exposure prophylaxisbecause the theory supports inclusion and helps the practitioner in deriving unique way of involving service users in order to deliver safe and quality patient care services. The major advantage of implementing use of this theory is in decision making of nurses where it helps in reducing medical and clinical errors (Kam, Chismar and Thomas, 2014). Thus, from the analysis it can be said that the theory can be effective forpost-exposure prophylaxis.PEP is an critical medication situation where nurses needs to befocused on pharma knowledge and confide of individuals when dealing patients. Moreover, it will be beneficial as it is related to interpersonal team working in health care organisation. Hence, it is important for the person to develop knowledge over cognitive continuum practises as it is related to enhancing one's knowledge over medical services which are patient centred. Involving effectively with patient to whichpost-exposure prophylaxis is being given is the most effective plan which is supported by cognitive approach of this theory. For instance, if in case the team of 5 health practitioner are allotted work in team for managing decision for the patient who has been exposed to HIV and within 72 hours he needs to be given PEP, in this case the focus practitioner will be on protecting the person by collaborating efforts like one will focus on knowledge constraints in order to manage preventive and cautious measure. One person will be focused on time management and other three will focus on giving treatment by motivating patients. The collaborative efforts of nurses demonstrate working and decision making via Cognitive continuum theory As per (The use of cognitive continuum theory and patient scenarios to explore nurse prescribers' pharmacological knowledge and decision-making,2008), article where the scholar conducted interview for using CCT to explore decision making and pharmacological knowledge of nurses. Nevertheless, the study denotes that majority of participants were unable to answer question for the case studies and proposed scenario, Few individuals were very confident to their solution to problems whereas there were respondents who stated that at the time of critical decision making the individuals refer patient to general practitioner. Thus, from the study, it has been evaluated that social and institutional factors plays an important role decision making of 2
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health care practitioner but it is important for the care workers to hold knowledge over pharmacological concepts and needs to have confident when dealing with service users in critical situation. Thus, from this learning, it can be concluded that CCT theory is effective only when the practitioners in cognitive team have coherent idea over medical and clinical setting of health acre organisation. (Dhami and Thomson, 2012), has discussed about four components of model which states that the approach helps the practitioner in making analytical and intuitive thinking at the time of making decisions.Further, the approach is focused on combination of efforts of nurses in order to make quick ad effective decision. Third phase of theory is based on quasi rational decision making and forth is based on dynamic cognition. The key term so CCT theory are analysis, wherethenursesareabletofollowconsistenceandconsciousprocessinhealthcare organisation. It enables high cognitive control and awareness about every specific service user and their education (Starmer, 2010).The special of functions and responsibility in this theory helps the practitioners is setting high cognitive control over clinical and medical setting when working interpersonal teams. Further, the theory is related to coherence, where it focuses on decision making and responsible person of the change. Apparently, it is important for their practitioner to ensure that the final decision made for clinical setting and medication of service need to be proper and specific. Expected Utility theory Expected utility theory is proposed byJohn von Neumann and Oscar Morgenstern, where the author discussed about the prediction and uncertain environment of health care setting. In this the author focused on changing medical intervention with patients. In this, it is the responsibility of practitioner to derive the behaviour of people in different and critical medical situations like post-exposure prophylaxis..It s related to choices made by nurses in uncertain and emergency situations. In this the author discussed about the decision making of nurses where it is important for the nurses to analyse all the possible outcomes of situation before implementing decision to situation. However, ion accordance to theory it can be argued that medical changes and practices are based on assumption, experience and knowledge. Therefore, when taking any choice for medical setting for patient the practitioner frames all the possible expectation and results which can occur It is the most possible approach to health care organisation which comes with risk and life threatening issues. (Moscati, 2017), has suggested that expected utility theory is beneficial 3
for the nurses to prevent infection and risk to patient with medication because the theory is focused on making pre assumption of health outcomes.Thus, theory can be effective for nurse for its PEP because it is related to prior detailing of medication and clinical setting before relating its to patient. This theory defines to deal with analysis situation where person make decision without knowing what result are out formed the decisions and those decisions are comes immediately. In nursing practise decisions are take certainty because some patients don't time to take decisions about the patients faster (Johansen and O'brien, 2016). Those types of decision are depended on the agents risk aversion and the utility of other agents. In nursing department they take search decisions according to their patients like some patient are more injuries in that situation they are no thinking much and start conversation one more thinking in the nursing practice they are 24 hours available to having treatments of the peoples (Levy, 2016). This also defined like theory which estimates utility of an action- where there is uncertainty about the outcome. In PEP nursing practice are defined the theory is defined the to take major decision in their profession in certain situation. It also tells about the practices to recover patients in their fields and also help to the person who are in danger situation. Mainly this is decision theory which are held in major situations.For instance, when the nurses are providing PEP treatment to patient where the focus of individual is on 72 hours of exposure. Further, the individual will just assume possible health outcomes after giving PEP which can be assured because of uncertain medical situation. However, assuming health outcomes will the focus of nurses when decision making with the helps of expected utility theory. This theory help in nursing department to take major decisions and also define the values of the nursing staff. This theory also defined the nurse are the only who take care the patients also take minor decision in certain situation it also helps to understand the all the patients details about the situations. Limitation helps to understand the nursing practices is defined they only take decision in their fields and their patients each department have their own nursing staff appointed in the hospital all the take care of patients and take decision in major situation. They are only one who are closer to patients sand help to define their situation (Alligood, 2017)n. Limitation are in nursing practice they only take decision in their department and their under patients. 4
Advantages of this theory help to take decision in critical situation its beneficial for the patients and also beneficial in their career. This theory also give advantage in patients treatments like they recover fast and also the critical decision are help to save patient life and also help treatment (Cunningham and et.al., 2014). This theory helps to understand the preparing of personal experience like those decision are help to improve confidence to take certain decisions in the medical department and nursing department capable to take major decision in their fields (Paterson and et.al., 2016). Apart from this, this theory has less disadvantage but some time nursing departments critical decisions are risk in the hospitals patients are not handled those treatments and they are died ll those blames' arr goes to the nursing department who take decision in major situation. It difficult but its true in nursing department. One more disadvantage to this theory in nursing department each decisions are only demands on the situation on when factors are not in the hospital or they are in hospital and nurses ignore them and they take decisions. In this situation major effects goes to patient health. Social Judgement theory Social judgement theory is proposed by self-persuasion theory proposed by Carolyn Sherif,MuzaferSherif,andCarlHovlan.Thetheoryoffersthemosteffectiveplanto practitioners because in with the help of this theory the nurses are able to make medical judgements. The theory is beneficial for PEP experience because it is important for the practitioner to make me quick judgement to emergency situation in order to prevent risk of uncertain medical situation. Apparently, it is related to judgement which arise in risky situation like inevitable error, abundance of fallible cues etc. Like PEP which is given to patient in emergency situation with 72 hours. In accordance to this situation it can be said that it is important for the nurses to make quick decision in order to prevent the risk of lapse. The nursing decision making accordance to social judgement theory varies from patient to patients and also with changes in clinical setting (Dowding and Thompson, 2017). As per social theory, it has been analysed that the medical judgement are instant and for making decision this theory support easy analysis. Accordance, to this procedure the individuals holds knowledge and experience of every medical situation and risks therefore as and when the situation arise the person is able to process instance solution to it by coordinating with past learning, knowledge and experience. It is consideredaseffectiveforPEPbecauseitiscombinationofknowledge,learning, 5
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implementation and processing. However, it is important for the nurses to be attentive at the time of medication. For instance, if in case the person suffering symptom of health related illness gets admitted, than in such cases the nurse will make medical judgement to situation for making people conscious. However, the judgement to enable normal medical treatment is the nursing decision making practice which is supported by social judgement theory. Apparently, it can be argues that social judgement theory is not effective in making medication decision but its also helps the protecting interest of services uses at care centre. With the help of social judgement the person is able to protect interest of service user when delivering care services. According to (Bjørk and Hamilton, 2011), there are five basic principles which are followed by nurses when implementing use of social judgement theory. In this the first focus of nurses is to analyse patients needs and requirement that is documentation of medical information of patients which can helps in framing reliable medical judgements.Further, the practitioner aims at summarizing possible actions which can be taken into consideration as per medical condition of patients. In addition, the responsibility of practitioner is to analyse acceptability of judgement to certain situation. Thus, as perpost-exposure prophylaxis, it has been analysed that medical judgement of practitioner in accordance to social theory comprise factors that, latitude of rejection, acceptance, non commitment, risk, interest and ethical values. (Offredy,KendallandGoodman,2018),hassuggestedsomeprinciplesofsocial judgement theory which needs to consider in nursing practices for effective decision making that is, it is important for the practitioner to ensure patient safety and practising of ethical values. Further, it is important for the nurse to consider all the medical record of patients before making medical judgement. On the other hand, considering the seriousness of problem and the factors which needs to be considered before predicting medical treatment for certain situation.On the other hand, the effectiveness of judgement theory can be argued because it ignores factors that affect persuasion of patients. Nevertheless, there are various situations in clinical care setting when which needs to be completely addressed before making medical decisions.It is a risky process because it s based on assumption but on the other hand it is important for the partitioner to enhance knowledge for PEP as per this theory because it helps in enhancing knowledge over different medical situation. Moreover, this theory is beneficial for quick decision making of nurses. 6
Nevertheless, from the discussion, it can be concluded that the medical judgement as per theory aims at accepting and agreeing to all clinical situation. Further, it involves neutral changes and reactions to every judgement. Hence, the prediction and medical assumption are with shared and common goals that is to deliver quality and safe care to every patients at the time ofpost- exposure prophylaxis. PEP is an antiviral medicine which is given to patient after being potentially exposed to HIV. It is the treatment which is given to prevent and control the risk of getting infected from HIV. Therefore, it is important for the health practitioner to ensure that PEP should be used only in emergency situations and must be given within 72 hours after a recent possible exposure to HIV However, in accordance topost-exposure prophylaxis,expected utility theory is the best and effective approach which can help the practitioner in reliable decision making in order to prevent exposure of HIV. The reasons behind choosing this theory of PEP is to develop health outcomes in order to prevent infections and to prevent spread of HIV (Dhami and Thomson, 2012). This choice of theory which helps in fulfilling agenda of nurses because PEP needs to done within 72 hours in order to prevent lapse. Like nausea is the most situation which arise at the time of PEP therefore, it is important for the nurse to prevent its cause by deriving the best health outcome. The motive behind choosing this theory of pep is to make prior medication prediction for certain medical situation. Thus, With the help of this theory the nurse will able to set proper plan to prevent infection and to monitor the exposure. Expected utility theory is effective for PEP plan as it helps in framing pertinent decisions under risky situations. Thus, in this the practitioner will make persuasive decision by protecting interest of service users also by protecting risk by making assumption for best health outcome. The contradictions, complexities and inconsistency of every theory is critical different from one another. The cognitive continuum theory is related to decision making when working in interpersonal team where expected utility theory is related to final outcomes to certain medication given to patients (Levy, 2016). Whereas social judgement theory is related to medial judgement making ability of nurses in uncertain medical situation. All three theories plays a crucial role in pep because the approaches offers different way of managing medication decision. Every theory offers different type of decision making strategy to nurses for PEP, because it is the plan which needs to be accomplished with given time frame in order to prevent relapse. In addition, from the critical discussion, it has been outline that post-exposure prophylaxisis a 7
complex procedure where it is importunate for the health care provider to make quick decision in order to prevent infection and relapse. However, implementation of theories assist the nurses in making effective decision by combining knowledge and experiences of medical setting for PEP. CONCLUSION The report summarised about different nursing decision making strategies forpost- exposure prophylaxisis. It is a critical process because HIV is infectious and needs to prevented with effective medication. The repost outlined that use of three theories for PEP decision making that cognitive continuum, social judgement an expected utility theory. Every theory is related to different medication decision making and outcomes. From the discussion and views of author it hasbeendiscoveredthatsocialjudgementapproachhelpsthepractitionerinpredicting medication judgement whereas expected theory helps in deriving appropriate health outcomes. Thus, the report concluded with implementation of expected utility theory for decision making of nurses in PEP. 8
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REFERENCES Books and Journals Bjørk, I.T. and Hamilton, G.A., 2011. Clinical decision making of nurses working in hospital settings.Nursing research and practice.2011. Offredy, M., Kendall, S. and Goodman, C., 2018. The use of cognitive continuum theory and patient scenarios to explore nurse prescribers’ pharmacological knowledge and decision- making.International Journal of Nursing Studies. 45(6). pp.855-868. Dhami, M. K. and Thomson, M. E., 2012. On the relevance of cognitive continuum theory and quasirationalityforunderstandingmanagementjudgmentanddecision-making. European Management Journal.30(4). 316-326. Kam, L. E., Chismar, W. G. and Thomas, S. M., 2014. Clinical judgment: Cognitive continuum theory prescriptions for medical heuristics. Medinfo. P.1676. Bombardini, M. and Trebbi, F., 2012. Risk aversion and expected utility theory: an experiment with large and small stakes.Journal of the European Economic Association. 10(6). pp.1348-1399. Felder, S. and Mayrhofer, T., 2017. Preferences, Expected Utility, Risk Aversion and Prudence. InMedical Decision Making.Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. (pp. 23-51). Starmer, C., 2010. Developments in non-expected utility theory: The hunt for a descriptive theory of choice under risk.Journal of economic literature. 38(2). pp.332-382. Levy, H., 2016. Expected utility theory. InStochastic Dominance.Springer Cham. (pp. 21-40). Johansen, M.L. and O'brien, J.L., 2016, January. Decision making in nursing practice: a concept analysis. InNursing forum(Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 40-48). Alligood, M.R., 2017.Nursing Theorists and Their Work-E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. Cunningham, F., and et.al., 2014.Williams obstetrics, 24e. Mcgraw-hill. Paterson, B.,and et.al., 2016. Disease-specific influences on meaning and significance in self- caredecision-makinginchronicillness.CanadianJournalofNursingResearch Archive.34(3). Online Dowding D. and Thompson C., 2017.Evidence-based decisions: the role of decision analysis. [Online].Availablethrough: 9
<http://booksite.elsevier.com/samplechapters/9780443067273/9780443067237_11.pdf> . Moscati I., 2017.Expected utility theory and experimental utility measurement, 1950–1985. Fromconfidencetoscepticism.[Online].Availablethrough: <https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09672567.2017.1378692>. The use of cognitive continuum theory and patient scenarios to explore nurse prescribers' pharmacological knowledge and decision-making.2008. [Online]. Available through: <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17362959>. 10