Diseases of Man

This article discusses various diseases of man including their causes, symptoms, prevention and treatment. It also covers topics such as blood pressure, immunity, and bone conditions. The output is in JSON format.

Running head: DISEASES OF MAN 1
Diseases of Man
Name
Institution
Course
Date

DISEASES OF MAN 2
2017. A) Difference in the following
I) Osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis
Osteoarthritis is a deteriorating condition of the joints that leads to the destruction of the
cushion material at the joints called cartilage as a result of the wear and action or ageing thereby
causing a lot of pain as a result of the joint bones rubbing against each other. On the other hand
rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic inflammation type of autoimmune disease that affects the joint
lining that is the synovium. There are various models as to the cause of the abnormal response of
the immune cells which stem from a genetic predisposition
II) Benign and malignant tumors
Benign tumors are cells which result from the abnormal proliferation of cells lacking the
potential of spreading to the nearby cells, but they can affect organs by for example exerting
weight affecting its physiology while malignant tumors are cancerous cells that divide
uncontrollably invading the adjacent cells through the blood and lymphatic system a good
example is a leukemia.
III) Bacteria and viruses
A bacterium is prokaryotic that is a single-celled microorganism that exists abundantly in
both the living and nonliving hosts as well as other places of the earth with both harmful and
beneficial impacts. Contrary, viruses are an acellular microorganism that survives while only in a
living host whereby they cause illness and evoke an immune response in the hosts. Bacteria are
living organisms while scientist considers viruses to be nonliving.
B) Discuss the differences between hepatitis A, B and C describing how each is transmitted
and its prevention

DISEASES OF MAN 3
Hepatitis is an infection caused by a viral microorganism that causes the inflammation of
the liver. There are three types of hepatitis namely A, B and C based on the kind of virus, a
channel of transmission, natural history and treatment procedures.
Hepatitis A results from food and water RNA virus infection. The virus infection occurs
through water and food consumed and after an incubation span of 3-6 weeks prodromal
symptoms such as fever, lethargy, joint pains and body ache manifest. The disease leads to the
yellowish discoloration of the eyes as well as the liver, spleen and the enlargement of the spleen.
The preventive measures include passive immunization with antibodies that last for three months
especially for travelers to tropical countries. Also, there is a one-year immunization using a
purified protein that can last for ten years with the use of a booster. Moreover, it can be
prevented through support by observing food hygiene, avoid the sharing of crockery, water
hygiene, avoid alcohol use and maintaining renal function.
Hepatitis B is blood borne caused by a DNA virus and can be transmitted through blood
during blood transfusion, unprotected sexual intercourse, hemodialysis and intravenous drug
abuse. Its prodromal symptoms include lethargy and fever which often manifest after an
incubation period of 1-6 months. The treatment is supportive, and abstinence from alcohol use is
vital.
Hepatitis C is caused by RNA virus, and it is blood borne. Some of the predisposing
factors are intravenous drug abuse, blood transfusion, unprotected sexual intercourse and
hemodialysis. Its symptoms are like those of hepatitis B, and chronic hepatitis is very common
with this infection. The disease can be prevented through avoiding of sharing of sharp items such
as needles and practicing safe sex.

DISEASES OF MAN 4
C) (I) Define blood pressure
Blood pressure is the force against the wall of blood vessels that enhances the movement
of blood from the heart to other parts of the body as a result of the diastolic and systolic actions
of the heart.
(II) What is hypertension?
Hypertension is the elevated pressure of the heart essentially referred to as high blood
pressure which often a predisposing factor for heart disease and stroke.
Describe the causes of hypertension and the clinical risks associated with it
One type of hypertension, primary hypertension has no identifiable objects but it is
associated with age whereby as one gets older the flexibility of the arteries reduces as deposition
along the walls increases of the blood vessels increases leading to high blood pressure. The
secondary hypertension is caused by a variety of underlying conditions, and it often occurs
suddenly. Some of such conditions include; thyroid issues, obstructive sleep apnea, adrenal gland
tumors, blood defects, medications such as birth control pills, use of illegal drugs such as
cocaine.
The following are the clinical risks associated with hypertension;
Age, hypertension prevalence increases with increase in the age whereby at about 64
years most men develop the disease while women develop it at the age of 65.
The other factor is the race for hypertension is prevalent among persons of African
heritage as compared to the whites.

DISEASES OF MAN 5
The family history also matters since such a disease can be inherited through genes.
Obesity or being overweight whereby the high the body weight the high blood volume
required hence high pressure.
A sedentary lifestyle also contributes to the development of hypertension. The less active
people require a high heart rate leading to high blood pressure.
2016. A) Describe three modes of a reservoir of infection and give examples for each
Humans act as carriers of various diseases in symptomatic or asymptomatic forms such
as AIDS and tuberculosis
Animals both the domesticated and wild animals can be reservoirs for various infections
for example rabies in dogs.
The nonliving reservoirs which comprise the environment such as the soil, water and air
are sources for infections such as cholera which is found in contaminated water.
B) Describe the differences between:
I) Osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis
Is the deteriorating condition of the bone joints prompting the destruction of the cartilage
cushioning the bones due to the wear and tear action or ageing while rheumatoid arthritis is a
disease caused by the destruction of the synovium due to abnormal immune responses to health
cells and tissues of the joints.
II) Bacteria and viruses

DISEASES OF MAN 6
Bacteria are harmful and beneficial single-celled living microorganism found in abundance in
both live and dead hosts as well as the environment whereas viruses are harmful acellular
nonliving microscopic organism that only thrive in an appropriate living host.
III) Malignant and benign tumors
Malignant tumors are metastatic cancer cells whereas benign are abnormally multiplying
non-cancerous that does not infect adjacent cells.
C) Explain the functions of mechanical and chemical barriers
The mechanical barrier is the first line of defense which physical hinders the entry of
foreign material pathogenic material to the body. This defense comprises of the skin, mucous
membrane and the cornea. These parts of the body provide non-specific protection to the body.
The skin produces keratin and fatty acids and enzymes such as lysozyme from its glands that
digest the outer layer of bacteria before they gain entry into the body. The mucous membrane
traps foreign material which is later swept out of the system by the hair-like projections called
cilia. The layer also contains antibodies that act against the antigens. These chemical substances
produced by the glands of the physical barriers provide chemical protection to the body.
II) Explain the function of the inflammatory response in providing non-specific immunity
Inflammation is part of a response to infections that offers nonspecific protection for an
organism. When a disease or attack on the body by foreign substances leads to a local discomfort
and collateral damage of unhealthy and healthy neighboring tissues thereby controlling the
spread of infection. The inflammation destroys the infected tissues.

DISEASES OF MAN 7
2015 A) Describe the effect of expanding hematoma on intracranial pressure aided by a
labelled graph
Intracranial pressure is referred to as the degree of force the cranium exerts on the brain
tissues, the blood flowing in the brain and the cerebrospinal fluid. A hematoma is a clump of
clotted blood outside a blood vessel as a result of an injury. Therefore an expanding hematoma
significant leads to an increase in the intracranial pressure. Expanding hematoma is directly
proportional to intracranial pressure (as shown in the graph below). The increasing intracranial
pressure leads to a headache and causes brain or spinal cord damage (Keep, Hua & Xi, 2012).
ICP
Pressure oh hematoma
B) Give a brief description of the conditions and their cause
I) Pneumothorax is the accumulation of free air in the thoracic cavity that leads to the collapse
of the lungs. It can occur spontaneously or as a result of an injury or an underlying disease.
II) Pneumonia is the infection of the lungs whereby the air sac fills up with fluid or puss leading
to difficulties in breathing. Viruses, fungi and bacteria such as Streptococcus pneumonia cause
this disease.
III) Pulmonary embolism is a defect that results from the blockage of an artery in the lungs due
to a substance that has been carried from elsewhere through the bloodstream. This can arise for
prolonged periods of immobility, clotting of the blood in the veins as well as the damage of eth
walls of the blood vessels (Goldhaber & Bounameaux, 2012).
C) Description of the following bone conditions and their causes

DISEASES OF MAN 8
I) Osteoporosis is a situation whereby the bones thin and weakens gradually becoming
susceptible to fractures. This condition can result from loss of calcium from the bones through
various processes.
II) Osteoarthritis is a condition that results from the destruction of the cartilage that
cushion joints. Excessive pressure on the joints leads to OA.
III) Paget’s disease brings about the significant growth and weakening of the bones.
This is a chronic issue that alters the normal bone remodeling process, which is the gradual
replacement of the new bone tissues in the older tissues. The disease’s prevalence increases with
age and history of bone disorders.
2014 A. I) Emphysema is a condition due to over-inflation of the alveoli of the lungs which
leads to shortness of breath. The leading cause is cigarette smoking.
II) Ischemia is a condition of restricted blood supply to tissues which affects cellular
metabolism due to a shortage in oxygen supply.
III) Osteoporosis is the susceptibility of the bones to fracture due to depletion of calcium
which makes the bines weak
B) Description of; I) Chemotherapy is the utilization of drugs in remedying cancer. These
drugs function in killing the cancer cells that have spread to other healthy cells from a primary
tumor. Besides curing the drugs function in the control and palliation which is the easing of the
symptoms of cancer.

DISEASES OF MAN 9
II) Radiotherapy is the use of high radiation doses to destroy cancer cells and reduce
tumor. The radiations also slow the spread and growth of cancer by destroying the DNA of
malignant tissues.
C) Definitions; I) Innate immunity is the first line of defense against foreign organisms and
toxins. This immunity does not rely on memory cells, and it is always in place as one is born.
The response is mediated by dendritic cells, natural killer cells, macrophages, basophils,
eosinophils and the mast cells.
II) Adaptive immunity is the defense that relies on the recognition of a previous attack
which elicited the formation of antibodies against a particular antigen. It is affected by the T and
B lymphocytes. These memory cells equip the body by attacking an antigen that has ever
attacked the body before.
2013 A) I) Blood pressure is the degree of force exerted on the arteries as a result of the
pumping force of the heart
II) Blood pressure is expressed as two numbers 140/90. What do they mean?
The number 140 represents the systolic pressure against the arteries when the heart is
pumping blood. The number 90 represents the diastolic pressure which is the pressure against the
arteries when the heart is relaxed.
III) Definition of cardiac failure and its causes
Cardiac failure occurs when cardiac muscles do not function properly maybe due to
narrowed arteries due to coronary artery disease. Cardiac failure is caused by weakened or
stiffening of the heart muscles.

DISEASES OF MAN 10
B) I) Define hepatitis
Hepatitis is a viral infection that causes the inflammation of the liver.
II) Hepatitis A results from food and water RNA virus infection. The virus infection
occurs through water and food consumed and after an incubation span of 3-6 weeks prodromal
symptoms such as fever, lethargy, joint pains and body ache manifest. The preventive measures
include passive immunization with antibodies that last for three months especially for travelers to
tropical countries. Also, there is a one-year immunization using a purified protein that can last
for ten years with the use of a booster. The disease can be treated by abstaining from alcohol use
as well as using painkillers
Hepatitis B is blood borne caused by a DNA virus and can be transmitted through blood
during blood transfusion, unprotected sexual intercourse, hemodialysis and intravenous drug
abuse. Its prodromal symptoms include lethargy and fever which often manifest after an
incubation period of 1-6 months. The treatment is supportive, and abstinence from alcohol use is
vital. It is treated using drugs such as adefovir dipivoxil or liver transplant (Charlton et al., 2015).
Hepatitis C is caused by RNA virus, and it is blood borne. Some of the predisposing
factors are intravenous drug abuse, blood transfusion, unprotected sexual intercourse and
hemodialysis. Its symptoms are similar to those of hepatitis B, and chronic hepatitis is very
common with this infection. The disease can be prevented through avoiding of sharing of sharp
items such as needles and practicing safe sex. The available therapy for Hepatitis C is the
combination of peginterferon and ribavirin (Charlton et al., 2015).
C) The TNM staging of cancer

DISEASES OF MAN 11
T represents the size of a primary tumor defining whether it has spread to the nearby
tissues. In this stage Tx is used to show a cyst that cannot be assessed, Tis for carcinoma in situ,
T0 for lack of evidence for any malignant cell and T1, T2, T3 as well as T4 signifies the degree
of a primary tumor.
N signifies the extent of spread to regional lymph nodes. The Nx indicated the lymph
nodes that can’t be assessed, N0 implies no metastasis, N1 means the presence of a tumor at a
particular site, N2 shows that the malignant has spread between N1 and N3 while N3 stands for
the spread of the malignant to many lymph nodes.
M is to signify the evidence for distant metastasis. M0 indicates the absence of metastasis
and M1 suggests the presence of metastasis (Goldstraw et al., 2016).
2012 A) Difference between infective and rheumatoid arthritis
I) Infectious arthritis is also known as septic arthritis since it results from the infection
of the joint by microorganisms such as bacteria spreading from another part of the
body which leads to the swelling and paining of these joints. On the other hand, RA is
a chronic inflammation type of autoimmune disease that affects the joint lining that is
the synovium
II) Bacteria and viruses; Bacteria is a prokaryotic ubiquitous microorganism thriving in
both living and nonliving hosts while viruses are nonliving microorganisms that use
the host’s mechanisms for survive meaning that they are only alive in the appropriate
host.

DISEASES OF MAN 12
III) Benign and malignant tumors; malignant are cancerous cells with the ability of
infecting neighboring tissues and cells while benign are abnormally proliferating cells
that do not infect the adjacent cells.
B) I) Osteoporosis is the phenomenon for weakening of the bones due to depletion of
calcium ions predisposing them to fracturing which results from dietary issues.
II) Emphysema is the over-inflation of the lung alveoli leading to shortness of breath whose
primary cause is cigarette smoking.
III) Ischemia is the reduction of oxygen supply to tissues leading to reduced cellular
metabolism commonly caused by clotting of blood in the arteries.
C) Define gallstones and their causes
Gallstones are hard substances like stones that form in the bile ducts. The gallstones
result from predisposing factors obesity, the diet with a lot of cholesterol and inheritance. Ones
they from, the gallstones obstruct the smooth flow of bile juice affecting digestion, and its
presence causes pain.
2012 A) Viral hepatic a significant concern in industrialized countries
Hepatitis E is considered a zoonotic disease whose reservoir is the swine and many
people get infected through use of contaminated or improperly cooked meat. It is very common
in the industrialized countries for they have leading meat production industries in the world as
compared to other countries which are not large consumers of pork (Meng, 2013).
B) How does emphysema cause hypoxia?

DISEASES OF MAN 13
Emphysema is a condition due to over-inflation of the alveoli of the lungs which leads to
shortness of breath and hypoxia is a clinical situation whereby a patient experienced reduced
arterial oxygen supply. Therefore as emphysema hinders the effective amount of oxygen by
causing difficulties in breathing, the condition limits the supply of oxygen to the arteries hence
hypoxia.
C) Describe the following (I) Glomerulonephritis refers to a variety of conditions that interfere
with the physiology of the glomeruli of the kidney which functions in the ultrafiltration. The
malfunction of the glomerulus leads to salt and fluid accumulation in the body which leads to
high blood pressure and in some cases chronic kidney diseases.
II) Kidney stones are minute hardened deposits of salt and minerals in the kidney as a
result of high salts in urine allowing the salts to crystalize. They affect the urinary tract and are
very painful.

DISEASES OF MAN 14
References
Charlton, M., Everson, G. T., Flamm, S. L., Kumar, P., Landis, C., Brown Jr, R. S., ... &
Kuo, A. (2015). Ledipasvir and sofosbuvir plus ribavirin for treatment of HCV
infection in patients with advanced liver disease. Gastroenterology, 149(3), 649-
659.
Goldhaber, S. Z., & Bounameaux, H. (2012). Pulmonary embolism and deep vein
thrombosis. The Lancet, 379(9828), 1835-1846.
Goldstraw, P., Chansky, K., Crowley, J., Rami-Porta, R., Asamura, H., Eberhardt, W.
E., ... & Rami-Porta, R. (2016). The IASLC lung cancer staging project: proposals
for revision of the TNM stage groupings in the forthcoming (eighth) edition of the
TNM classification for lung cancer. Journal of Thoracic Oncology, 11(1), 39-51.
Keep, R. F., Hua, Y., & Xi, G. (2012). Intracerebral haemorrhage: mechanisms of injury
and therapeutic targets. The Lancet Neurology, 11(8), 720-731.
Meng, X. J. (2013, February). Zoonotic and foodborne transmission of hepatitis E virus.
In Seminars in liver disease(Vol. 33, No. 01, pp. 041-049). Thieme Medical
Publishers.