Solution Paper Questions 2022

Running head: SOLUTION PAPER 1
Solution Paper
Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliation

NURSING ASSIGNMENT SOLUTION PAPER 2
QUESTION 1
Which type of immunity is expressed in the following scenarios? Choose between:
QUESTION 2
Choose TWO of the below scenarios and highlight these rows bold. State which general
property of adaptive immunity the scenario illustrates in the second column. Select ONE phrase
(from the list below) that BEST describes what is happening at a cellular level to result in this
property of adaptive immunity. Write the letter corresponding to this phrase in the third column.
An example is included.
Scenario Type of immunity
Bacterial septicaemia (bacterial
contamination in systemic
circulation)
Specific (cell-mediated immunity)
Mucous-coated hairs within the nose
trap and filter microbes from inhaled
air.
Non-specific (first line defence)
Interferons are released by virus-
infected cells and interfere with viral
replication.
Non-specific (second line defence)
A virus multiplies inside the
epithelial cells in your throat.
Specific (antibody-mediated)

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Scenario General
property of
immunity
Explanation
Even though your body contains a relatively small number of
lymphocytes, your immune system can mount a response
against almost any antigen it encounters.
Versatility A
Generally, after an initial infection, subsequent immune
responses to that antigen are faster, stronger and more
sustained.
Memory Cells C
You can suffer from ‘the flu’ multiple times throughout
your lifetime.
Tolerance F
Your immune system can distinguish between antigens on
your own cells, and those of an invading pathogen.
Possible phrases are listed below. Not all phrases will need to be used and only ONE phrase is
required per row. If you record more than one, you will not be awarded any marks for your
explanation.
A There are millions of different lymphocyte populations, each of which is sensitive to a

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different antigen. Lymphocytes proliferate when activated by their specific antigen.
B Each T or B cell has receptors that respond to only one antigen and ignores all others.
C Activated lymphocytes produce two groups of cells: one group that attacks the
invader immediately, and another that remains inactive unless it is exposed to the
same antigen at a later date.
D Each T and B cell can recognise many antigens and respond to a wide variety of possible
threats.
E T cells are versatile because they produce copious quantities of antibodies that can
respond to a wide variety of threats.
F Phagocytes have a reduced ability to destroy pathogens during subsequent infections.
G The immune response ignores self-antigens and targets non-self-antigens.
H B cells differentiate into T cells to create a long-lived immune response.
QUESTION 3
Which bone cells would be MOST affected by an absence of parathyroid hormone? In you
answer, you must explain the relationship between these cells and any subsequent effect
upon blood calcium levels.
The calcium homeostasis is usually maintained by the parathyroid hormone in the body.
This hormone is usually secreted by the parathyroid gland and only acts in the presence of too
much calcium levels in blood. In that case, the bone cells which will be affected at most in the

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absence of PTH is osteoclast (Austin, 2017). These cells usually helps the PTH in maintaining
the calcium levels.
QUESTION 4
Define hypertrophy and use an example to explain how this term relates to skeletal muscle
tissue.
Hypertrophy is one of the ways through which cells grow in order to adapt changes
within their environment which can be both advantageous and disadvantageous. However, the
skeletal muscle hypertrophy usually increases the skeletal muscle’s cross-sectional area by the
biosynthesis of the new structures (Babai et al., 2019).
QUESTION 5
Think about how the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system acts to maintain normal blood
pressure. Susan has sustained damage to her adrenal glands. Consequently, her circulating
levels of aldosterone are abnormally low. What do you expect the lack of aldosterone to do
to Susan’s blood pressure? Explain your answer.
The Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone system is usually the hormone based system that
helps in blood pressure and fluid balance regulation. The kidney is usually stimulated to release
renin when the nerve impulse indicates low blood pressure. The Renin enzyme usually breaks
the angiotensinogen into angiotensin I. This enzyme is then converted to angiotensin II by the
angiotensin converting enzyme (Cabandugama, Gardner & Sowers, 2017). However, the
aldosterone is the hormone produced by adrenal cortex region of adrenal gland which influences
the kidney filtration. Therefore, Susan having low levels of aldosterone will affect the blood
pressure. The kidneys will therefore not be in a position to regulate salt and water balance.

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QUESTION 6
Tasma is enjoying a night out at the pub with her friends. It is well established that alcohol
inhibits the secretion of ADH. Explain how this will affect her urine output.
Alcohol will inhibit the secretion of the ADH and hence the following will happen. To
start with, there will be excessive water intake. Tasma will experience diabetes insipidus which
causes the kidney to release large amounts of water thus making a person to feel thirsty. Last but
not least, there will be low serum osmolality (Ching et al, 2018). All the above mentioned
conditions will increase rate of urine formation thus increasing the output.
QUESTION 7
Haemophilia is the oldest known hereditary bleeding disorder. Explain why haemophilia is
more commonly seen in males.
Hemophilia is an X-linked recessive disorder of genes. As an illustration, the males
usually have only one X chromosomes while the females have two X chromosomes. Therefore,
because of the single X chromosome, if it is affected by the hemophilia then will be expressed in
males (Favre, Esnault & Van Obberghen, 2015). On the other hand, in the female both
chromosomes have to be affected in order to express the disorder. This is the reason why it is
common in males.

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QUESTION 8
Describe the changes in volume and pressure inside the chest cavity during a normal, quiet
inhalation.
The volume of the lungs usually expands during the normal inhalation as a result of
contraction of diaphragm together with the contraction of the muscles connected to the rib cage.
This activity usually results in the expansion of the thoracic cavity (Zaccagnini & Pechacek,
2019). As an illustration, when the volume of the lungs increases, the pressure inside the chest
will decrease as the Boyle’s law.
A. Explain why these changes are occurring, and the effect upon airflow
The diaphragm usually contracts and moves downward when we breathe in. Because of
the movement of the diaphragm downwards, the lungs usually expands due to the
increase in space of the chest cavity. However, the intercostal muscles also contributes to
the enlargement of the chest (Hosokawa et al, 2016).
B. Is quiet inhalation an active process? Briefly explain your answer
Quiet inhalation is an active process. As an illustration, during inhalation, the volume of
the lungs usually expands because of the contraction of the diaphragm together with the
muscles which are connected to the b cage. The lung pressure usually reduces as
compared to the atmosphere (Lichtnekert et al, 2016). Under those circumstances,
because of the contraction of the muscles, energy and work is needed which proves that
quiet inhalation is an active process.

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QUESTION 9
A. Complete the below table of partial pressures in internal respiration.
pO2 (mmHg) pCO2 (mmHg)
Tissue pO2 40mmHg pCO2 45mmHg
Capillary pO2 95 mmHg pCO2 40mmHg
B. Use to the figures above to explain how differences in partial pressures drive the
direction of gas movement between the tissues and blood
When the capillaries carries blood to the tissues as shown in the above figures, the partial
pressure of oxygen will be less inside the tissues because oxygen diffuse from the capillary to the
tissue and since the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is more inside the tissues hence diffuses of
the tissues. On the other, the capillaries carries blood to the lungs by the process called diffusion.
When oxygen enters the capillaries, it increases the partial pressure to 95mm Hg and hence
carbon dioxide leaves the capillaries thus reducing the pressure to 40 mm Hg (Halliwell &
Gutteridge, 2015).
QUESTION 10
A person with type O blood has been involved in a car accident and excessive bleeding
necessitates a blood transfusion. Due to an error by a careless laboratory technician,
the person is given type B blood. Explain what will happen.

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In this case the immune system of the person will produce the antibodies against any
antigen which are not present in the blood. The person with type O blood is a universal donor but
can only receive the type O blood. In this case, the patient will therefore experience flu like
fever, ache, and chill along with a burning sensation. Furthermore, if the immune system doesn’t
wait for foreign red blood cells to clear the blood vessels before splitting, the splitting can spill
their contents into the blood vessels. This can be excreted in urine which will turn the color of
urine to dark brown color.
QUESTION 11
Explain how baroreceptors are involved in a situation where a short period of
widespread vasoconstriction has been detected. How do these receptors then assist the
body to respond to the situation?
The baroreceptors are usually the pressure sensing bodies changes in blood pressure since
they detect the. During a short period of vasoconstriction, the high blood pressure usually
causes the stretch of the receptors that results in the movement of the sodium ions in the
nerve endings thus initiating the action potential. The baroreceptors sense blood pressure and
hence relay information to the brain. If the blood pressure is low then the cardio regulatory
centre will respond by causing an increased heart rate that causes vasoconstriction.
B
DA
C

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QUESTION 12
The Wigger’s diagram (below) represents pressure and volume relationships in the left side of
the heart during one cardiac cycle. To answer this question, you should focus on the changes in
pressure in different chambers of, or vessels leading from, the left side of the heart.
For TWO of the labelled points, state which valve is open/closed at that time. Highlight your
chosen point in bold. You must also explain WHY that valve opened/closed and where the
blood is flowing immediately after this point in time, due to the change in position of the valve.
An example is provided.
Label Valve (name and
open/closed)
Explanation
A AV valve will close The atrium usually contracts pushing blood
into the ventricles that leads to the increased
volume of blood in ventricles in the process
of depolarization of the heart stage.
However, because of the increase in blood
volume, the valve closes
B The semilunar valve will The pressure increase in ventricles is caused

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open by the combination of filling of the
ventricles with blood and the contraction of
the walls of the ventricles. In that case,
ventricle contraction usually proceeds from
the bottom to the top of the ventricle thus
pushing blood against the flabs of the semi-
lunar valves thus causing it to open
C The semilunar valve will
close
The blood usually moves from the atria into
the ventricles when the pressure fall below
the atria. That is when the semilunar valve
closes and hence the second heart sound
occurs which is always described as a dub.
D Left AV/bicuspid valve opens The pressure in the left ventricle becomes
lower than that in the left atrium. Blood
flows from the left atrium to the left
ventricle.

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QUESTION 13
The below pictures illustrate phases of haemostasis. Choose ONE of the pictures. State
which phase of haemostasis is depicted. You must also provide a brief description of your
chosen phase. Highlight your chosen row in bold. Note: it is not necessary to label parts of
the diagrams, but you may do so if it will help you explain the phases.

NURSING ASSIGNMENT SOLUTION PAPER 13
Picture
Name of
phase
Description of phase
Vascular
phase
The endothelial cells usually
contracts and hence releases
endothelins. The endothelial cells
usually becomes sticky and hence
adheres to platelets and each other.
Coagulation
Phase
Protein prothrombin is usually
converted into the active enzyme
thrombin at this phase. Furthermore,
the active enzymes thrombin usually
converts the protein fibrinogen in
the protein fibrin which is insoluble
(Karaboyas, 2018).
Platelets phase The platelets usually stick to the
endothelial surfaces, basement
membrane exposed collagen fibers
and to each other. The platelets
usually release chemicals after
being activated which are
responsible in promoting
aggregation, vascular spasm clotting

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together vessel repair.
QUESTION 14
The following questions relate to the role and importance of a spinal reflex in the body.
A. Complete the table below to summarise the FIVE anatomical units of the reflex arc
(column 1). Use the patellar reflex to provide an example for the blank anatomical units
(column 2).
Anatomical unit Example (patellar reflex)
1 Receptor The sense organ in skin and muscle
2 Sensory neuron
3 Integrating center Carry impulse within CNS
4 Motor neuron
5 Effector Muscle and glands
B. Using the patellar reflex as an example, explain the purpose of a neural reflex.
Controlling of the mechanisms of the cardiovascular systems and prevention of the
stretching of the quadriceps is the main purpose of the neural reflex . The Patellar tendon
usually attaches to the quadriceps muscles to the tibia bone of lower leg (Favre, Esnault
& Van Obberghen, 2015).

NURSING ASSIGNMENT SOLUTION PAPER 15
QUESTION 15
Name the region of the brain responsible for regulation of breathing and blood
pressure. Would you expect damage in this region to be fatal? Why?
Medulla is the region that is responsible for regulation of breathing and blood pressure.
Damage to this region can be fatal since it controls the important autonomic functions such as
breathing together with the heart rate. Furthermore, it transfers neural messages to and from the
brain and spinal cord. Some of the damages that may result from the damage of medulla are
paralysis of the body, double vision together with the coordination problems (Pereda & Faber,
2018).
QUESTION 16
Using the diagram provided as a prompt, outline the four steps involved in the
transmission of an electrical impulse from the presynaptic neurone to the post synaptic
nesurone.

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Step Outline
1
The neurotransmitter has to be synthesized and stored in vesicles so that any time
the action potential arrives at the ending, the cell will be in a position to pass to
the next neuron
2 When the action potential arrives at the terminals, the neurotransmitter has to
efficiently and quickly be released. The activation of voltage gate calcium
channel that permits calcium to enter. However, the vesicles which contains the

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neuro transmitter are pushed to the wall by calcium
3
The neurotransmitter usually enters the synaptic cleft and then binds to the
specific neuro transmitter receptor. Conversely, the sodium diffuses via the
receptor into post synaptic cleft and hence continues the action potential,
4
The removal of the neurotransmitter via the enzymes are taken back to the
presynaptic axon terminal. As an illustration, this usually makes the synaptic cleft
clear and also ready for the next action potential.
QUESTION 17
List two (2) differences between the external and internal urethral sphincters. The
differences must relate to structure, function or innervation of these sphincters.
The Urentra sphicter usually regulates the outflow of urine into the urethra from urinary
bladder. Conversely, the internal urethra sphincter usually comprises of smooth muscle which
surrounds the neck of the blabber and usually relaxes for urine to pass. It is typically controlled
involuntarily. On the other hand, the external urethra sphincter is composed of the skeletal
muscle tissue. It is usually controlled voluntarly and prevents urine leakage (Wang et al, 2018).
QUESTION 18
Glucose and protein (e.g. albumin) are substances normally found in blood. For each of these
molecules, answer the following questions in the table below. Assume you are discussing what
happens in a healthy person. (1 mark per box; 6 marks total)

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a) Describe what happens to each substance at the glomerulus. Explain why/why not the
substance will move into the tubule system.
b) If the substance moves into the tubule system, describe what happens to the substance
along the tubule system. Explain why.
c) Do you expect to find each substance in the urine? Explain why or why not.
Glucose Protein
a) Glomerulus The glucose is usually filtered in
the glomerulus, it appears in the
glomerular filtrate then
reabsorbed back into the
bloodstream
The glomerular membrane is a
thin composite structure and
therefore the proteins molecules
can’t pass through. The
glomerular usually ensures that
the essential plasma protein is
retained in blood and filtrate
passed on as urine
b) Tubule system Glucose usually moves into the
tubule and then reabsorbed back
into the blood stream
The substance will not move into
the tubule system since it always
has large particles and therefore
can’t pass through the glomerular
c) Urine Glucose can only appear in urine
if it is excess.
Proteins should not be found in
the Urine. This is because they
are too large and hence can’t
filter through glomerulus under

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normal circumstances. Presence
of protein into urine is a
condition called proteinuria
References
Austin, S. K. (2017). Haemostasis. Medicine, 45(4), 204-208.

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Babai, N., Gierke, K., Müller, T., Regus‐Leidig, H., Brandstätter, J. H., & Feigenspan, A. (2019).
Signal transmission at invaginating cone photoreceptor synaptic contacts following
deletion of the presynaptic cytomatrix protein Bassoon in mouse retina. Acta
Physiologica, 226(2), e13241.
Cabandugama, P. K., Gardner, M. J., & Sowers, J. R. (2017). The renin angiotensin aldosterone
system in obesity and hypertension: roles in the cardiorenal metabolic
syndrome. Medical Clinics, 101(1), 129-137.
Ching, T., Himmelstein, D. S., Beaulieu-Jones, B. K., Kalinin, A. A., Do, B. T., Way, G. P., ... &
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Favre, G. A., Esnault, V. L., & Van Obberghen, E. (2015). Modulation of glucose metabolism by
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Halliwell, B., & Gutteridge, J. M. (2015). Free radicals in biology and medicine. Oxford
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Karaboyas, A., Xu, H., Morgenstern, H., Locatelli, F., Jadoul, M., Nitta, K., ... & Robinson, B.
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patients. Kidney international, 94(3), 589-598.

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Lichtnekert, J., Kaverina, N. V., Eng, D. G., Gross, K. W., Kutz, J. N., Pippin, J. W., &
Shankland, S. J. (2016). Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibition increases
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Nephrology, 27(12), 3611-3627.
Pereda, A., & Faber, D. S. (2018). Two forms of electrical transmission between
neurons. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 427.
Wang, Q., Wang, J., Wang, T., & Peng, H. (2018, December). Fault Location of Distribution
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Zaccagnini, M., & Pechacek, J. M. (2019). The doctor of nursing practice essentials: A new
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