Assessing Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Using Electromagnetic Brakes

This article discusses the advantages of electromagnetic brake systems in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and their working principle. It also explores the use of electromagnetic brakes as supplementary equipment for retardation on heavy trucks. The article outlines the components of an electromagnetic braking system and the statistical methods used to analyze the data obtained from the tests conducted on the aggregate of coconut shell.

1Abstract— The ever changing and constantly developing
and technologies and emerging trends have seen the motor
vehicle not left behind and instead reflect numerous
developments which are in line with the direction of change
of technology around the world. As a global concern at it
has remained, renewable energy and climate change could
be among the reasons attributed to the emergence and
development of electric vehicles which have to a very great
extent aided in added the challenge of the ever increasing
fuel prices and the impact of the use of fossil fuels on the
environment as well as on human health. The adoption of
high power electronics in the driving of the electrical
engines of the newly invented electric and hybrid vehicles
generates high level and low frequent electromagnetic
interference.
For the case of plug in hybrid cars, this new emission has
been topped up to the one of the ignition system. This
explores some of the electromagnetic interference
measurements among them current that is used in the car
braking systems in which focus will be on distant and close
magnetic field in two cars and a truck. There will have to be
updates on some of the issues on the tests set up as well as
the standard among them including: measurements of cars
cannot be taken when the car is in an idle state, magnetic
field examination for safety is compulsory in some of the
automobiles or to take into consideration the measurements
of radiated transient, new line impedance stabilization
networks has to be used in the networks of high power.
Keywords: Plug-in vehicles, Electromagnetic braking,
Brake failure, Energy efficiency
I. INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetic brakes, also known as electro-mechanical
brakes, work by slowing down or completely stopping
motion through the use of electromagnetic force in the
application of mechanical resistance. The system whose
initial name was electro-mechanical brakes but later
converted to electromagnetic brakes with reference to the
mode of actuation has in the past mainly been applied in
trams and trains. The system works on the principles of
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Student Name (student number) is studying XXXX engineering in the
Griffith School of Engineering and buildt Environment, Griffith University.
Email [e-mail]
.
magnetic power and electric power and depends on
magnetism.
There are numerous advantages of electromagnetic brake
systems as compared to the convention friction brakes hence
serving as a better replacement. One of the main reason and
major reasons for the implementation of electromagnetic
brake system in PHEVs is a reduction in the wear in the
brakes owing to the fact that it is frictionless.
Besides the normal friction brakes, electromagnetic brakes
have for a while be used as supplementary equipment for
retardation on heavy trucks [1]. The working principle of the
electromagnetic systems in the road vehicle encompasses
the changing of kinetic energy to thermal or heat energy. A
stopping force is commanded by the driver, upon stepping
on the brakes, numerous times as string as the force that
initiates the motion in the car and release the related kinetic
energy in the form of heat. Brakes must be in a position to
get hold of the speed of a vehicle in the shortest periods of
time possible irrespective of how fast the vehicle is.
Therefore, it is required that the breaks have the capability
of producing high torque and high energy absorption at extra
ordinarily high rates for short time periods.
Electromagnetic brakes are composed of mainly three parts:
armature, field and hub. The magnetic field is often bolted
to the frame of the machine. Upon the armature being
attracted to the field, there is transfer of the stopping torque
into the field housing as well as into the frame of the
machine that decelerates the load; a process that takes place
an extremely fast rate.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Working Principle
In case a touch of copper wire was curved, about the
nail and a short time later connected with a battery, it could
make an electro magnet. The alluring field created in the
wire, from the current, is called as the "right hand thumb run
the show". The nature of the alluring field is changeable by
altering the two wire gauge and the proportion of wire
(turns).The fields of EM brakes may be initiated to function
at whatever DC voltage and the torque created by the brake
would be the equivalent provided the right working voltage
as well as the current is utilized with the right brake [2]. A
consistent current power supply is perfect for exact and most
extreme torque from a brake. In the event that a non-
directed control supply is utilized the attractive motion will
debase as the obstruction of the curl goes up.
Fundamentally, the more sizzling the curl attracts the less,
the torque will be delivered by around a normal of 8% for
each 20°C [2]. In the event that the temperature is genuinely
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ASSESSING PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES USING
ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKES
Student Name and student number

steady, and there is an issue of enough administration factor
in the outline for minor temperature variance, by marginally
over measuring the brake can make up for debasement. This
will permit the utilization of an amended supply of power,
which is far more affordable than a consistent current
supply.
In view of V = I × R, as obstruction increments accessible
current reduces. An expansion in opposition, frequently
findings from increasing temperature as the curl warms up,
as indicated by: Rf = Ri × [1 + αCu × (Tf - Ti)]
Where Rf = last opposition,
Ri = introductory obstruction,
αCu = s opposition temperature coefficient of copper
wire
0.0039 °C-1,
Tf = last temperature, and
Ti = introductory temperature.
Components of an Electromagnetic Braking System
Disc liner: The covering is the segment of the stopping
mechanism which changes over the vehicle's active vitality
into warmth. The coating must be fit for surviving high
temperatures without intemperate wear (prompting incessant
substitution) or out gassing (which causes brake blur, a
reduction in the ceasing intensity of the brake). Brake
linings are made out of a generally delicate yet extreme and
warmth safe material with a high coefficient of dynamic
contact (and in a perfect world an indistinguishable
coefficient of static grinding) regularly mounted to a strong
metal backing utilizing high-temperature glues or bolts [3].
Braking coil: An electromagnetic loop (or essentially a
"curl") is shaped when a conductor (normally a protected
strong copper wire) is twisted around a center or shape to
make an inductor or electromagnet. At the point when
power is passed through a curl, it produces an attractive
field. One circle of wire is typically alluded to as a turn or a
winding, and a curl comprises of at least one turns. For use
in an electronic circuit, electrical association terminals
called taps are regularly associated with a curl. Curls are
regularly covered with varnish or wrapped with protecting
tape to give extra protection and secure them set up. A
finished curl get together with at least one arrangement of
loops and taps is frequently called windings.
Tension Spring: A spring is a versatile protest used to store
mechanical vitality. Contingent upon the outline and
required working condition, any material can be utilized to
build a spring. When a spring is compacted or extended, the
power it applies is relative to its adjustment long [3]. The
rate or spring steady of a spring is the change in the power it
applies, isolated by the adjustment in redirection of the
spring. That is, it is the slope of the constrain versus
avoidance bend. An augmentation or pressure spring has
units of power separated by separation, for precedent lbf/in
or N/m.
Battery: A battery is a gadget that proselytes substance
vitality specifically to electrical vitality. It comprises of a
number of voltaic cells; every voltaic cell comprises of two
half cells associated in arrangement by a conductive
electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell
incorporates electrolyte and the terminal to which anions
(contrarily charged particles) move, i.e., the anode or
negative cathode; the other half-cell incorporates electrolyte
and the terminal to which cations (decidedly charged
particles) relocate, i.e., the cathode or positive anode [4]. In
the redox response that powers the battery, decrease
(expansion of electrons) strikes cations at the cathode, while
oxidation (expulsion of electrons) jumps out at anions at the
anode.
Alloy wheel: Alloy wheels have turned out to be
impressively more typical since 2000. Combination wheels
are car (auto, cruiser and truck) wheels which are produced
using a composite of aluminum or magnesium. They are
commonly lighter for a similar quality and give better
warmth conduction and enhanced corrective appearance
over steel wheels. The most punctual light composite wheels
were made of magnesium amalgams. Amalgam wheels have
for quite some time been incorporated as standard hardware
on higher-evaluated extravagance or games autos, with
bigger measured or "select" compound wheels being
alternatives. The mind-boggling expense of combination
wheels makes them appealing to hoodlums; to counter this,
automakers and merchants regularly utilize locking wheel
nuts which require an exceptional key to evacuate. Most
compound wheels are produced utilizing throwing, yet some
are manufactured.
Electro-magnet: An electromagnet is a sort of magnet in
which the attractive field is delivered by the stream of
electric current. An electric current streaming in a wire
makes an attractive field around the wire [5]. To think the
attractive field, in an electromagnet the wire is twisted into a
loop with numerous turns of wire lying one next to the other.
The attractive field of the considerable number of turns of
wire goes through the focal point of the curl, making a solid
attractive field there. The heading of the attractive field
through a loop of wire can be found from a type of the right-
hand run the show. The principle favorable position of an
electromagnet over a lasting magnet is that the attractive
field can be quickly controlled over a wide range by
controlling the measure of electric current [10].
Research Hypothesis
The research hypothesis here is demonstrative of the way of
achieving as well as examining the hypothesis and the
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procedures use for proving the research hypothesis. The
hypothesis of this research is that:
 Electromagnetic braking systems are more efficient
than the conventional friction braking systems.
An Outline of the Methods to be used
This study will bring on board a fabrication of a model of
electromagnetic braking system to aid in the achievement of
the objectives of the research. Electromagnetic property is
used in electromagnetic braking system due to which a
braking action will take place. The fabricated model,
electromagnet iron plane, Disc brake plate, liners, and
tension spring are used [7]. The brake liners were linked to
the electro-magnet as well as to the iron plate on an
individual basis and then the disc plate inserted for both
plates. Silicon control rectifier is used in the braking system
where the gate pulse of the silicon control rectifier is shot
and the output fed to an electromagnet for the purposes of
breaking the wheels. Silicon control rectifier provides a high
current to the electromagnetic braking system, enabling the
electromagnet to attract the iron plates [6]. This results in an
opposition of the motion of the wheels.
Figure 1: Construction Diagram [2]
Figure 2: Firing Circuit Diagram [2]
Various calculations will be performed on the obtained
model including:
Braking force which is expressed as
………………………… Eq. 1
Clamp force expressed as
………………………………Eq. 2
Braking force which is calculated with the aid of Newton’s
Second Law of Motion as
………………………..Eq. 3
Brake power expressed as
………………………….Eq. 4
Methods of gaining and analysing data
Some of the techniques that will be used in gaining data
include:
 Interviews: This would involve engaging
individually different parties that are perceived to
be probable data sources. Among those who may
interviewed include mechanics and motor vehicle
dealers on in transport industry.
 Direct observation: This would involve taking
note of the various changes in the parameter
measured efficiency in reducing friction
 Registration: This encompasses gathering of data
through conducting license licensing of operation
transport industries.
Methods of Data Analysis
The statistical methods of analyzing the findings from the
three tests conducted on the aggregate of coconut shell will
be dependent on the nature of the obtained results. Among
the methods that will be adopted include;
Mean, which would be important in finding the overall
nature of a data set or otherwise offering a quick overview
of the findings. The mean will be used in finding the
averages of repeated tests for the same test procedure to aid
in finding a fairly convergent ground [8]. The mean would
be in the determination of the average of the wearing out of
the wheels when electromagnetic braking system is used
Standard Deviation: This method would be used in the
estimation of how widely spread over the mean the findings
of the study are. The standard deviation would be used to
find the nature of spread of the efficiency of the use of
electromagnetic braking system. The formula shown below
is used in the determination of standard deviation:
S=
Regression is yet another statistical data analysis method
that would be used for this study. It would aid in the
determination of the nature of the correlation between the
various parameters of variables that are under test.
Regression would help in determining if there is a
relationship between the force of the braking system and the
efficiency as far as the reduction of friction is concerned.
Hypothesis testing is used in find out if a premise is true for
the results of a research as demonstrated by the data. It
would encompass performing comparisons between the
results and earlier mentioned hypothesis and would be
assumed to be statistically significant if findings are found
not have been able take place by any random chance.
Statistical Methods needed to prove the hypothesis
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Mathematics based concepts; models as well as
strategies are a major fraction of the statistical methods that
would be required in offering a proof to the research
hypothesis of this research. The research hypothesis can be
attained through the adoption of some of the mathematical
concepts among them those that have been discussed above
[9]. Other models and computer software that are as well
good for this research include MATLAB, AutoCAD that
would aid in refining the data further.
Follow up Research Plan
The follow up study plan would assist in the
production of knowledge on the chosen phenomenon
frequently and repetitively over a specific time period. This
research will utilize such strategies as observation and
interviews with the aim of enhancing and ascertaining the
effective of the research effort. As dictated by
circumstances, electronic forms will be as well adopted in
achieved the research plan objectives
Expected Outcomes and Conclusion
This section would involve making sense of the finding from
both the works of literature as well as the experiment carried
out using the three different kinds of hybrid vehicles. It
would encompass an analysis of the finds based on the
existing knowledge and comparison of the findings against
the previous works of other scholars on the same topic as
well as the hypotheses of the research [10].
REFERENCES
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Project Personnel
 Senior scientist/ Project coordinator: Overall
project Data Analyst: Required at the end of the
project to conduct an analysis of the data attained
 Laboratory technician: Avails the technical tools
needed for the project
 Ecologist: Offers advice on sustainability of the
project
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