Endocrine and Respiratory System

This study material provides information on the endocrine system, including calcium homeostasis and control of blood glucose. It also covers the control of metabolism and regulations of respiratory function. Learn about diseases like osteoporosis, diabetes mellitus, thyroid dysfunction, and asthma, including their symptoms, diagnosis, and management.

Endocrine and respiratory system

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................3
MAIN BODY...................................................................................................................................3
Endocrine System........................................................................................................................3
Calcium homeostasis...................................................................................................................3
Control of blood glucose- ..........................................................................................................4
Control of metabolism.................................................................................................................5
Part B..............................................................................................................................................7
Regulations of respiratory function.............................................................................................7
CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................8
REFERENCE...................................................................................................................................9

INTRODUCTION
This endocrine system refers to the groups of the glands which produces the harmones
that control the growth and development, function of the tissue, function of the sexual,
reproduction and other things. This file includes the calcium homoeostasis disease. Regulations
of the respiratory system. The internal and external respiration includes the failure of the acute
respiratory failure.
MAIN BODY
Endocrine System
Anatomy and Physiology:
Calcium homeostasis
Calcium is found to be one of the mostly found mineral found in human body. Calcium
id requires for many purpose in the human body like it is important for the health of the tooth,
regulating the heart rate and heart strength for contraction, flow of blood, improvement of
skeleton muscle cells and regulating the nerve impulse conduction. In a normal body amount of
calcium found in blood cells is around 10mg/dl. If this level is not maintained a person
experiences hypercalcaemia. Calcium cannot be produced by any natural biological processes
only way it can penetrate human body is through the intake of the food through diet. Bones are
the store house of calcium as it stores calcium. When the blood levels gets high it releases
calcium when blood level drops too low this process is regulated by PTH, vitamin D (Sherwood,
2015). Cells including parathyroid glands consist of plasma membrane. When calcium does not
minding these receptors, cells tends to releases PTH, which secretes osteoclast proliferation and
repositioning of bones by osteoclasts. This process of demineralization releases calcium into
blood cells. PTH regulates synthesis of vitamin D, which in return, stimulates calcium absorption
for any digested food in small intestine. When all these processes tends to return blood calcium
levels to normal, there is enough calcium to bind with the receptors on the surface of the cells of
the parathyroid glands, and this cycle of events is stopped (Grigore, Ben-Jacob and Farach-
Carson, 2015)

Disease caused- Osteoporosis
Diseased caused by the deficiency of calcium is osteoporosis. This is due to higher deficiency of
the calcium which leads to low bone density which leads to the broken bones, bones which
usually breaks includes vertebrae in spines, bones of forearm and hips. The only way of
identification is breaking of bones which is due to the severity of bone breakage. Chronic pain
and inabilities to carry out the normal body functioning may occur. The bone mineral density
decreases as the osteoporosis occurs ( Dimitriadis and et.al., 2017).
Symptoms: Back pain, stooped posture, loss of height with time, rapid and more frequent bone
fractures.
Diagnosis- to assess the risk of fracture and osteoporosis and determining the need of treatment a
bone density scan must be done. This is carried out to measure the bone mineral density. It is
most commonly performed using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA or DEXA) or bone
densitometry. This is carried out by amount of X-rays absorbed by tissue and bone measured by
DXA and relates with bone mineral density. This converts bone density information in T score
and Z score (Tsigos and et.al., 2016).
Management- There are many treatments found of osteoporosis which are stated as follows:
 Bisphosphonates
 calcitonin
 hormone therapy
 RANK ligand inhibitor
 Selective estrogens receptor modulators
 parathyroid hormone analog
Prescription of the doctors is required for these medications and medical evaluation is required
before treatment of osteoporosis.
Fracture can be the result of osteoporosis. Vertebroplasty and keratoplasty, performed by a
radiologist, may be an option to treat spine fractures. Vertebroplasty and image guidance is used
to inject a special cement mixture by radiologist, which is injected in spine for the treatment of
bone fracture. In keratoplasty, insertion of a balloon through needle into fractures bone to create
a cavity. Once balloon is removed, a cement mixture is injected into cavity (Loganathan, Cheng
and Andrew, 2016).

Control of blood glucose-
Blood glucose regulations involves maintaining of Blood glucose level at constant level
of the dynamic glucose intake and energy used by body. Consumption of blood glucose is around
60-100 mg/dL for an adult. To maintain a range of glucose level two main hormone are essential
that controls blood glucose level: insulin and glucagon. Insulin is released if there is a high
amount of glucose in blood stream. Glucagon is released when there are low level of glucose in
blood stream. There are many different hormones that effect glucose regulation which are
controlled through sympathetic nervous system (Brazzale, Pretto and Schachter, 2015). For a
human body blood glucose maintenance id very much important. As brain doesn't consist energy
of its own it needs a constant flow of glucose to maintain the energy level. Without sufficient
glucose the body does not function properly and can leads to death. The glucose level in the body
must be maintained for the proper functioning of the body as glucose provides energy to the
body, they are energy provider to various parts of the body for the body at rest it requires around
60% of total glucose consumption of the human body. A proper control and coordination of the
glucose level must be identified and controlled.
Disease caused- Diabetes mellitus
Diseased caused due to improper balance of the glucose level in human body is diabetes
mellitus. The ability of human body to use glucose due to insulin pathway diabetes mellitus may
be disturbed. There are two main type of diabetes mellitus: type 1 diabetes mellitus and type 2
diabetes mellitus.
Type 1 diabetes mellitus is persons early lifespan it is also called as juvenile diabetes mellitus. In
this type no insulin is made naturally in the human body this occurs due to the damage od
pancreatic beta cells. This is due to autoimmune disorder. Without insulin glucose cannot enter
cells and will not be able to produce energy(Rezai, and Ansarinia, Cleveland Clinic Foundation,
2015). Type 2 is a condition where body becomes is resistant to insulin or insulin is not prepared.
Damage to small blood vessel can occur.
Symptoms: Frequent urination, unexplained weight loss, visionary changes, numbness or
tingling in feet or hands, extreme hunger, excessive thirst, tiredness and skin dryness are
common symptoms of diabetes mellitus.
Diagnosis- diagnosis consist of identification of the increased level of glucose in the human body
which has a diverse effect on various body parts of human body. This can be identified by the

glucose level check which can affect the human heath a person suffering from diabetes must be
regularly check the level of glucose so as to maintain a healthy lifestyle. For type 1 which is the
higher level of glucose insulin must be taken which includes the regulation of level of the
insulin which can minimise the sugar level. Type 2 is the lowering of sugar level which must be
improved by various means (Boe, Boule and Kovacs, 2017).
Management- management must be done in order to improve the various things which can be
used for the generation of the preventive measures which needs to be done in order to maintain
the safer conditions.
Control of metabolism
A cell of different body parts require different energy level of the metabolism which can
be changed due to regular interval of time. For various kind of functioning different cell need
different amount of energy which are required for human growth and working. Three main
purpose of metabolism activities are conversion of food taken in to convert energy to run cellular
process, conversion of building block as fuel for proteins, lipids and nuclei acid and elimination
of nitrogenous waste. This consist of branched process in which they are made to grow and
reproduce maintaining the structure. Metabolic reactions are categorised in 2 forms catabolic
and anabolic. Catabolic refers to breaking down of compounds, anabolic refers to the building up
of compounds. Catabolism usually releases energy and anabolism process consumes energy.
The metabolic system of a particular individuals will determines which substances it will find
nutritions and which poisonous(Brooks and et.al., 2015). For example, some procaryote use
hydrogen sulphide as necessary agent in the form of nutrient, although this gas is poisonous to
animals. This basal metabolic rate measure of the amount of energy consumed by these chemical
reactions. This feature of metabolism is the same as of the basic metabolic pathways among
vastly different species.
Disease caused- Thyroid dysfunction
Disease caused due to the lack of metabolism activities which affects thyroid gland,
which is located at the front of neck and produces thyroid hormones. That travel along with
blood and spread over different organs of human body. There are generally 5 type of hormonal
diseases (Rajamani and et.al., 2017) .
 Hypothyroidism(low function)
 hyperthyroidism(high function)

 structural abnormalities (goitre )
 non cancerous tumours
 subclinical hypothyroidism and subclinical hyperthyroidism
in some cases of subacute thyroids after some medication cure can takes place which can be
normal after certain clinications (Gooren and t’Sjoen, 2018).
Symptoms: Excessive weight gain, constipation, muscle weakness, muscle and joint pains,
depression, pale and dry skin, feeling abnormal cold and tiredness
Diagnosis- diagnosis starts with history of medications and examinations. Screening is carried
out with the patients without symptoms, dysfunction is suspected by laboratory tests carried out
initial blood test carried out includes TSH (thyroid stimulating hormones) and free thyroxine. If
autoimmune disease is suspected blood test looking for anti-thyroid antibodies can also be
obtained. Procedures like ultrasound, biopsy, and radioiodine scanning and uptake study can be
done in order to help the patient with diagnosis particularly if nodule is suspected (Gordan,
Gwathmey and Xie, 2015)
Management- Management of thyroid disease varies on the disorder found in the patients.
Levothyroxine is the main aspect of treatment for people suffering with hypothyroidism, while
people with hyperthyroidism this is caused by Graves, this disease can be cured by iodine
therapy, antithyroid medication, or surgical removal of the thyroid gland. Thyroid surgery is also
used to be performed for the removal of thyroid nodule or to reduce the size of a goitre if it
obstructs. It can be managed by the right amount of treatments to be carried out in order to
prevent form disease which result in better health. A proper medication can lead to healthy living
and better living.
Part B
Regulations of respiratory function
The ventilation refers to the psychological mechanisms which is involved to manage the
control of breathing, which is refereed as the movement of air into and out of the lungs.
Ventilation supports respiration. Respiration refers to the intake of oxygen and removal of
carbon dioxide by the body, or by cells through the process of cellular respiration (Lumb, 2016).
The major function of breathing is the supplying of oxygen to the body and the removal
of its waste product carbon dioxide. Under most desirable conditions, the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide (PCO2), which controls the respiration rate. The change in the level of oxygen

and carbo-dioxide located with aortic bodies and carotid bodies. These are primarily sensitive to
changes in the blood type resulting in the fluctuations of oxygen level in the body. They are
located in medulla oblongata near respiratory organs of respiratory centre. There are 4 types of
respiratory groups 2 medulla and 2 pons. Respiratory group consist of 4 types:
 Dorsal respiratory
 Ventral respiratory
 pneumotaxic centre
 Apneustic centre
Disease caused- Asthma
Disease caused by dis-functioning of respiratory organs is Asthma. It is a common
disease which is caused by the recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstructions, easily
triggered bronchospasm. It is caused by the combination of various genetic and environmental
factors. Includes air pollution and allergies. Other symptoms includes medications such as
aspirin and beta blockers used by patients. Diagnosis is usually based on pattern of symptoms,
responses of the therapy occurred and lung function testing. They are classified according to the
severity of symptoms. FEV1 and peak expiratory flow rate. It can also be classified as atopic and
non- atopic (Sznol and et.al., 2017).
Symptoms: These symptoms includes wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of
breath. These may occur a few times a day or week. Depending on the person, asthma symptoms
may be worse at night or with any physical activity.
Diagnosis- This can be used to minimise the cause of the asthma various preventive measures
must be taken out to improve the disease its severity can be minimised in order to maintain the
neutral atmosphere and better functioning of the body.
Management- there is no such cure of asthma it can only be minimised by proper function and
mediations minimising the risk and reducing the severity can be done in order to minimise the
severity of disease. It can be managed by taking pills on time and medications must be followed
which can improve the health (Neal, 2016).

Mechanics of ventilation:
Ventilation is basically the air movement through the conducting passages between
atmosphere as well as lungs. The ventilation is mainly provided to the patient when they suffer
from acute and severe disease of breathing and when they become unable to grab air in top their
lungs. The mechanics of ventilation is applied in three situations.
Disease: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
The chronic diseases involved the range of diseases in which the structure of the lungs
within an individual is distorted and thus the air does not pass from their airways. The chronic
respiratory disease is very common in this which mainly includes respiratory allergies,
occupational lung diseases etc (Atkinson, Crocker and Ortiz, 2018). In this case, a proper
ventilation system ids given to the patient through which they are able to breathe.
The obstructive lung disease is generally characterized by obstruction in the breathing. In
this, the small bronchi as well as larger bronchioles constricts and due to this, the air is not able
to pass thoroughly to the lungs. In this, ventilation broadens the bronchi by forcing the pressure
on bronchi due to which it becomes easier for the air to pass. It is the disease which impacts the
pulmonary circulation.
It includes Pulmonary embolism, arterial hypertension etc. In this case, the pulmonary
veins which passes to the lungs becomes distorted. Thus, in this the ventilation helps in
protecting the capillaries as well as veins and thus provides air to respiratory pipes.
Symptoms: Breathing shortness, chest tightness, excessive mucus in lungs or throat, chronic
cough which may be white, greenish or yellow, frequent respiratory infection, unintended weight
loss and swelling in ankles or feet.
Diagnosis:
Diagnosis of the chronic diseases by analyzing the signs and symptoms from which the
chronic diseases occur in the human beings. For the diagnosis of the chronic diseases have two
main sources such as survey which collect the report of the status of the diseases. Other sources
which provides the information are pharmaceutical prescription or laboratory data.
Management:
The management of the chronic diseases involves the lifestyles of the human being
should be positive like the diet should be healthy, regular exercise, social support and better
sleep. The chronic disease is the long time situation which is generally controlled by cannot be

cured. So the patient of the chronic diseases manage their daily symptoms of the problems. There
are lots of techniques to deal with the problems like frustration, pain, isolation and fatigue. These
techniques are effective exercise to improve and maintain the flexibility, strength and endurance.
By communicating with the family and proper use of the meditations.
Internal and external respiration:
Respiration refers to the process in which the carbon dioxide and oxygen are spread over
the whole area in and out of the blood. External respirations is the exchanges of gases in the
lungs of the respiratory membrane. It shows that the respiration is done between the cells of the
body and external environment of the body. In the external respiration there are two stages. In
the first stage there is the breathing and ventilation from which the carbon dioxide goes out of
the body and oxygen comes in the body by this process. the second stage gases are transfer
between the alveoli of lungs and blood capillaries. Internal respiration involves the gases are
transfer within the respiratory membrane when the tissue are metabolizing like the muscle of the
skeletal. Internal respiration releases the energy like adenosine triphosphate by the use of oxygen
after breaking the molecules of the body (Wira, and et.al., 2015). Internal cellular respiration
happened in two types i.e. Respiration which needs the oxygen called aerobic respiration and the
respiration which does not needs oxygen called anaerobic respiration. External respiration is
happened between the body and cells while internal respiration is occurs in the cells of the body.
Disease: Acute respiratory failure respiration
Failure of acute respiratory is happened when in the lungs fluid is made in the air sacs.
When the lungs of the human being fails to provide the oxygen in the blood this results in the
organs of the body do not have the proper oxygen for effective functioning of the blood in the
body. The body indicates the various symptoms and signs of the failure of the acute respiratory
such as breathing will be shortness and confusion in the minds of the human being. There are
problems related to the lungs and chest trauma caused due to the failure of the acute respiratory.
Symptoms: Breathing shortness, air hunger, rapid breathing are common symptoms. In severe
cases confusion, sleepnesses, bluish colour on skin and lips can also be observed.
Diagnosis:
To identify the failure of the acute respiratory the doctors have to perform the physical
exam in the hospital which helps to measure the symptoms and signs in the body of the human
being. By asking the questions from the members of the family or by checking the history of

personal health. The level of the carbon dioxide and oxygen in the body should be checked and
level them with the devices of pulse oximetry and from an arterial blood gas test. By ordering the
x-ray of the chest for checking the abnormalities in the lungs of the human being
Management:
The patient who is suffering from the acute respiratory failure that have be admitted in
the intensive care unit and care unit of the respiratory. Chronic respiratory failure of the patient
mostly treated at their home with the supplementation of the oxygen and with the devices of the
ventilation along with the therapy of the diseases. Oxygen therapy is given to the patient of the
acute respiratory failure (Sifakis, and et.al., 2017). Acute respiratory failure and chronic
impairment of the gases transfer in the lungs and blood it the cause the problem of the hypoxia
with or without the hypercapnia. The treatment of the acute failure of the respiratory brings
oxygen in the lungs of the body and remove the carbon dioxide
CONCLUSION
This study reflects the various components of the endocrine system which can be used to study
the disease minimising the risk of the various study. Various disease is studied in order to carry
out the proper management of the disease which can be used to minimise the risk. Preventive
measures of the disease and efforts to minimise are studied.

REFERENCE
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