Autonomous Vehicles: A Literature Review

This assignment presents a thorough literature review on the topic of autonomous vehicles. It delves into various aspects of autonomous vehicle technology, including object scene flow for navigation, consumer interest, traffic management systems, communication protocols (IEEE 802.11 p), legal considerations regarding traffic law compliance, public health impacts, and intersection safety protocols for mixed human-operated and autonomous vehicles. The review also touches upon the ethical challenges surrounding moral decision-making in autonomous vehicles and future technology scenarios for urban mobility. The assignment draws upon a diverse range of sources, including academic publications, conference proceedings, and industry reports.

Running head: CASE STUDY ON CONTEMPORARY TRAFFIC ENGINEERING ISSUES
AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES APPLICATION AND THE TRAFFIC ISSUES IN THE UK
“Case study on contemporary traffic engineering issues Autonomous vehicles application and the
traffic issues in the UK”
Name of the student
Name of the University
Author’s Note

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Abstract
This study focuses on the contemporary traffic engineering issues and autonomous vehicle
application in the UK. The aim of the study is to identify contemporary traffic engineering issues
and application of autonomous vehicle in the UK. Issues in the traffic engineering have been
depicted in the study and solutions have been provided. The impact of the autonomous vehicle
on the issues of traffic engineering have been explained in the study. A proper methodology has
been used in this research. Positivism philosophy with deductive approach has been explained in
the research. Data and information related to the research have been taken from secondary
sources including online journals, books and government databases. Data has been thematically
analyzed with the help of creating three themes related to the research topic. The outcomes of the
research have helped in fulfilling the objectives of the research. Recommendations have been
provided at the end for improving security issues in the autonomous vehicle technology.

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Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction................................................................................................................4
Background..................................................................................................................................4
Rationale......................................................................................................................................5
Problem Statement.......................................................................................................................7
Aims, Objectives and Questions..................................................................................................8
Summary......................................................................................................................................8
Chapter 2: Literature Review...........................................................................................................9
Concept of Autonomous Vehicles...............................................................................................9
Benefits of Autonomous vehicles..............................................................................................10
Impacts of Autonomous vehicle on travelling...........................................................................16
Summary....................................................................................................................................18
Chapter 3: Methodology................................................................................................................19
Research Philosophy..................................................................................................................19
Research approach.....................................................................................................................19
Data Collection..........................................................................................................................20
Data Analysis.............................................................................................................................20
Ethical Considerations...............................................................................................................20
Chapter 4: Data Findings and Analysis.........................................................................................21
Summary....................................................................................................................................24

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Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations..............................................................................25
Conclusion.................................................................................................................................25
Recommendations......................................................................................................................25
References......................................................................................................................................27

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Chapter 1: Introduction
Background
Transport has been a major factor in the growth and economic development of countries
and cities. The quality of transport system attract different investments and desirability in the
urban regions. The transport system of determines the productivity of the business organization
in the market the traffic system if the country helps in maintaining congestions on roads (Menze
and Geiger 2015). This report deals with a case study of traffic problems and its solutions by
SIEMENS Company. This company have helped in maintaining and monitoring traffic problems
in the UK. The challenges in assessing various methods for removing contemporary issues in the
traffic of the UK have been depicted (Lu et al. 2017). The solution to these issues in the traffic
might be mitigate by using connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs). The use of this
technology have been integrated in the new technology if the UK in the transport system
(Fagnant and Kockelman 2015). These autonomous vehicles have many exciting benefits that are
frontier in the vehicular development system.
This report have focused in identifying issues in the traffic in the UK. This research have
helped in proposing solutions to these problems by including autonomous vehicles. These
connected and autonomous vehicles have some limitations that has been discussed in the report.
A critical analysis of the concept of autonomous vehicles and its impacts on the traffic
engineering have been discussed in the study. The study have used secondary method of data
collection. Different online journals, newspapers, articles, government reports and databases
have been accessed for data collection process for the research. Data has been analyzed using
thematic analysis related to the issues in the traffic engineering.

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Rationale
As commented by Gerla et al. (2014), transport-engineering problems have been
continuously creating issues in the normal life of citizens in the UK. The challenges in the
transport system of the country have been a major problem for organizing this research. The
major cause of this problem has been increase in the population all over the world. According to
survey, by 2030, about 61 percent of the global population will be living in cities. Therefore, the
crowd in the cities is going to increase in upcoming years due to urbanization. The number of
cars and other vehicles will be increased by a huge number. Therefore, there is a parking space
problem in these cities.
As mentioned by Bonnefon, Shariff and Rahwan (2016), in the current scenario, The UK
has been suffering with traffic problems due to increase in number of cars and bad management
of traffic engineering. The road accidents in the cities have been increased due to this problem.
The parking space problem has been a major problem faced by citizens of the country. The peak
time of traffic has been in the daytime (Zhao et al. 2016). Traffic congestions occur during the
office hours in both morning and evening. This have increased in the number if road accidents in
the country.

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Figure 1: Road Accidents in the UK
(Source: Janai et al. 2017, pp.23)
There has been numerous cases in the city related to the parking space management.
Therefore, different vehicles are parked in the roadside creating congestion in the traffic. As
commented by Maddern et al. (2014), less space for parking, vehicles have been a major problem
in the engineering practices of traffic. Less space have been left for parking vehicles during
construction of buildings. Urbanization have created traffic road problem in the city. Maximum
number of people are migrating towards cities in search of jobs and high studies. The
conventional traffic control system have failed in monitoring traffic scenarios and providing
updated information related to motorists (Kuderer, Gulati and Burgard 2015). The strategy used
for maintaining the traffic system has not able to provide better services to the passengers and
citizens of the country.

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Figure 2: Congested regions in the UK
(Source: Maurer et al. 2016, pp.56)
This research has helped in identifying issues in the traffic engineering systems in the
UK. Various concepts of the connected and autonomous vehicles. These vehicles might help in
mitigating these issues n the traffic engineering problems. The application of the connected and
autonomous vehicles in the traffic system have been depicted in the research. This research
throws light on providing a basic approach of advanced technology in the engineering practices
in traffic system.
Problem Statement
The main problem in this context has been issues in engineering practices in traffic
system. The research have identified various problems in this context. Road accidents have been
increasing in the regions due to increase in number of vehicles and bad traffic management. This
research focuses on application of connected and autonomous vehicle in the traffic system.
Aims, Objectives and Questions
The aim of the research is to identify contemporary traffic engineering issues and
application of connected and autonomous vehicles and its issues in the UK.
Following are the objectives of the research:
 To identify issues related to traffic engineering issues in the UK
 To critically analyze the concept of connected and autonomous vehicles and its
applications
 To recommend strategies for mitigating these traffic engineering issues in the UK

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Following are research questions:
 What are the issues related to traffic engineering issues in the UK?
 What is the concept of connected and autonomous vehicles and its applications?
 How to mitigate these traffic-engineering issues in the UK?
Summary
This chapter deals with the basic concept of the research topic. The current scenario of the traffic
problems have been reflected in the content. Aims, objectives and research questions have been
initiated in this chapter.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review
Concept of Autonomous Vehicles
As commented by Rojas-Rueda, Nieuwenhuijsen and Khreis (2017), autonomous vehicle
technology simply brings a change in the transportation industry. These autonomous vehicles
have been able to change the scenario of the transportation industry . Autonomous cars and
vehicles are the self-driving vehicles that does not require driver for driving it. Autonomous
vehicles uses modern advanced technology for driving on roads. As commented by Bonnefon,
Shariff and Rahwan (2015), the use of autonomous vehicle has been increased by pubic in their
daily life. There are various benefits of using autonomous vehicles as it minimizes pollution in
air. The high impact of environmental benefits have helped in providing better consequences in
the market. As suggested by Winter et al. (2017), application of autonomous cars have helped in
minimizing the road accidents. There has been various changes in evolution of autonomous
vehicles. Various companies have been trying their best for modifying these technologies in the
market.
Figure 3: Sixty-five years of automotive baby steps

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(Source: Bayat et al. 2017, pp.89)
Benefits of Autonomous vehicles
As commented by Lu et al. (2017), autonomous vehicles have provided various benefits
to customers and passengers. It have helped in reducing use of petrol, diesel and cost of
travelling. Various benefits of the autonomous vehicle technology have been given below:
Improved Mobility
Autonomous vehicles help in providing independent mobility for non-drivers, which
include individuals with disabilities and adolescents. Therefore, it provide benefits to travelers
for removing the burden on their family members and create new opportunity with economic
productivity. Many individuals, which are not able to drive, can drive cars and other vehicles. As
argued by High, Atchley and O'brien (2017), autonomous vehicles might reduce the support for
public transit services and reduce mobility of non-drivers. In case of cost control in driving,
autonomous cars are difficult to stop due to absence of driver. However, these cars create anxiety
and stresses among travelers due to uncertainty of reaching their destination. Subosits and
Gerdes (2017) argued that, for minimizing cleaning and vandalism cases, interior of vehicle are
made of stainless steel that reduces comfort of traveling in the car and reduce security by nit
using security cameras in the vehicle. These cars also reduce the travel speed and reliability as
dropping a passenger takes time to restart vehicle again.
Ownership and Operating costs
As commented by Funke et al. (2017) autonomous vehicles require additional equipment
for providing quality services to passengers. However, recent technologies might add up
thousands of dollars in the initial cost of the vehicle in the market. As argued by Nair et al.

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(2017), failure in any of the system of the vehicle, cost huge money for repairing or modifying it.
As this failures can be deadly, the use of various strategies for maintaining the vehicles are
important and are costly. Therefore, tis can be done by maintaining good operational costs in the
market. This can create several financial problems for customers in the market.
All Vehicles Shared Vehicles (Autonomous)
Sensors (Infrared, Optical, Laser and Radar) Frequent passenger area repairs and cleaning.
Automated controls (Braking, Signals,
Steering)
Fleet and dispatching management.
Servers, software and power supplies Business insurance and administration.
Wireless networks. Short-range systems
applicable for vehicle-to-vehicle
communication.
Business profits.
Navigation including GPS systems with
quality maps.
Security.
Critical component maintenance and testing Empty vehicle-miles travelled to pick up and
drop off passengers.
Table 1: Autonomous Vehicle Equipment and Service Requirements
(Source: Prakken 2017)
As commented by Guvenc, Guvenc and Emirler (2017), the increase in the level of
drivers in the autonomous drivers, the purchase price might get increase with additional annual
cost and maintenance costs. Experience with last vehicle innovations, including automatic
transmissions and airbags. However, this helps in indicating towards the future of the

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autonomous vehicles in the state. The price of the vehicles might be increased due to the use of
the advanced technology in the cars and vehicles. However, quality of the vehicles will be
increased in the future. This indicates that for the foreseeable future (next decade or two)
autonomous vehicle (AV) costs will average (total annual costs divided by annual mileage) $0.80-
$1.20 per vehicle-mile, which may eventually decline to $0.60-$1.00 per mile, somewhat higher than
human-operated vehicle (HV) average costs of $0.40-$0.60.
Figure 4: Automated vs Personal Car costs
(Source: Deb et al. 2017, pp.37)
In some researches, it has been found that shared electric autonomous vehicle might cost
less than 10 ¢ per mile. These low estimates might ignore several costs including vehicle
maintenance and cleaning, empty vehicle miles, insurance policy and business profits. However,
automobiles currently have $3,600 in fixed expenses and $2,400 in variable expenses (Brown et al.
2017). It is driven about 12,000 annual miles, which averages about 50¢ per mile, of which about

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20¢ per mile is operating expenses (automobile cost estimates published by the automobile
associations are somewhat higher because they focus on newish vehicles with full insurance).
Figure 5: Cost Comparison
(Source: Huang et al. 2017, pp.49)
Traffic Safety
As commented by Peng et al. (2017), 90 percent of road crashes and accidents are caused
due to human error. Therefore, autonomous vehicles might reduce these road accidents and
insurance costs by 80-90%. Therefore, autonomous mobile help in maintaining the road safety
for individuals on rod and while driving. As argued by Venugopal (2017), there are some
limitations of the autonomous cars in this context. These autonomous vehicles are handled with
various hardware and software. Therefore, there can be failure in the software and hardware
components of the vehicle. This might create emergency for the vehicle without any software
connection. Self-driving technologies, re connected with internet. Therefore, there can be
malicious hacking for controlling the car and vehicle. This might create problems for the

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passengers inside the vehicle. However, beyond this several threats are mitigated by the
autonomous vehicles. The use of autonomous vehicles helps in minimizing road accidents.
External Costs
As commented by Fairfield, Herbach and Furman (2017), autonomous vehicle reduces
external costs including energy consumption, traffic congestion, pollution emissions, parking
facility costs and roadway. Autonomous vehicles require specified roadway for travelling that
helps in minimizing the roadway charges. This roadway helps in increasing speed and
acceleration of vehicles on road. As argued by Heard, Taiebat and Miller (2017), autonomous
vehicles can create congestion and pollution. If they strictly follow traffic laws and maximize
caution, such as speed limits and optimal spacing between vehicles, they will delay most other road
users who tend to be less cautious. If programmed to stop and wait for human instructions when
faced with unexpected conditions, they will frequently block traffic altogether.
Benefits Costs/Problems
Mobility for non-drivers. It helps in providing
independence to mobility for non-drivers, and
reduce the requirement for motorists to non-
drivers, and to subsidize public transit
Increases costs. It requires additional vehicle
equipment and services, and roadway
infrastructure
Reduced stress, and increased comfort and
productivity. It helps in reducing stress of
driving by allowing motorists to rest and
work while traveling.
Additional risks. It may introduce new risks,
including system failures, be less safe under
certain conditions, increase crash severity due
to platooning and higher speeds, and
encourage road users to take additional risks

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(offsetting behavior).
Reduced driver costs. It helps in reducing
costs of paid drivers for taxis and commercial
transport.
Reduced security and privacy. It may be used
for criminal and terrorist activities (such as
bomb delivery), vulnerable to information
abuse (hacking), and features such as GPS
tracking and data sharing may raise privacy
concerns.
Increased safety. It may reduce accident risks
and help in crash costs and insurance
premiums. It may also reduce high-risk
driving during when impaired.
Induced vehicle travel and increased external
costs. By increasing travel convenience,
autonomous vehicles may induce additional
vehicle travel and sprawled development.
Increased road capacity, reduced costs. It
helps in allowing platooning (vehicle groups
traveling close together), narrower lanes, and
reduced intersection stops, reducing
congestion and roadway costs.
Social equity concerns. May have unfair
impacts, for example, by reducing the
convenience and safety of other modes.
Increase fuel efficiency and reduce pollution.
It helps in increasing fuel efficiency and
reduce pollution emissions
Reduced employment and business activity.
Jobs for drivers should decline.
Reduced parking costs. Can drop off
passengers and park away from destinations.
Reduced support for other solutions.
Optimistic predictions of autonomous vehicle
benefits may discourage communities from
implementing more cost-effective transport

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solutions such as better walking and public
transit improvements, and other demand
management strategies
Supports vehicle sharing. Could facilitate car
sharing and ridesharing, helping to reduce
total vehicle ownership, leveraging reductions
in total vehicle travel.
Table2: Autonomous Vehicle Potential benefits and Costs
(Source: Created by author)
Impacts of Autonomous vehicle on travelling
As commented by Benderius, Berger and Lundgren (2017), autonomous vehicle have
helped in minimizing the travel and extra costs. These vehicles have helped in increasing
mobility by non-drivers including individuals with disabilities and adolescents. However, in the
normal society maximum number of citizens are not able to drive a vehicle on their own.
Therefore, they faces various difficulties in travelling to places to places. The use of the
autonomous vehicles have helped in maintaining the driving in the people in the market.
Therefore, autonomous vehicle have enhanced the traveling industry in the market. A
commented by Martin et al. (2017), autonomous driving have also changed the perspective of the
people regarding the dilemma of driving a car or other vehicle. It has increases convenience of
driver by increasing productivity. The use of autonomous vehicle have helped in providing a
smooth experience if driving.

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Figure 6: Autonomous Vehicle Sales, Fleet and Travel projections
(Source: Sharon and Stone, 2017, pp.123)

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As argued by Novaes Júnior et al. (2017), autonomous vehicle have reduce vehicle
ownership that tends to leveraging large vehicles travel reduction. This occur as personal vehicle
costs are fixed that encourages vehicle owners for maximizing travel expectations. The use of
shared autonomous vehicle help in reducing travel costs and traffic congestion. As commented
by Huang et al. (2017), autonomous vehicles are fast in compare to normal vehicle and provide
better opportunity for the passengers to reach at their destination. It provides reliability and
safety to the passengers. Therefore, it enhances the quality of travelling of passengers during
journey.
Summary
This chapter summarizes various concepts of autonomous vehicles in the market. The
benefits of autonomous vehicles and its limitations have been discussed in this chapter. The
impact of the application on travelling has been depicted in this chapter.

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Chapter 3: Methodology
Research Philosophy
As specified by Flick (2015), research philosophy helps in giving the fundamental data
and the measurements with respect to the subject considered in this research. Furthermore, the
basic parts of the considerable number of points are examined in this area of the study. The
research philosophy is additionally ordered into the philosophy and the epistemology. In
addition, there are numerous philosophical parts of the research methods of insight which
incorporate phenomenology and axiology. This study have selected positivism philosophy.
Research approach
Silverman (2016) commented that the approach technique utilized as a part of study think
about distinguishes the strategy connected for gathering and looking into utilized. There are two
unique kinds of methodologies which are inductive and deductive one. In the event of the
deductive approach of research, the past inquires about in view of this subject are broke down for
tending to in flow consider. In the event of the inductive approach, new speculations are talked
about and broke down for considering in an examination ponder.
As stated by Taylor, Bogdan and DeVault (2015), the technique utilized for this research
ponder has thought about the deductive approach. The past models and speculations have been
considered in the research study which helps in giving a general perspective to the paper. This is
the explanation behind the analyst to utilize the deductive approach and finish the investigation
by utilizing different models and hypotheses.

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Data Collection
The two types of data collection method are primary and secondary method. Primary
method deals with the data collection from primary sources including online survey. In this
study, data and information has been collected from the secondary sources including online
journals, books, articles, reports and governmental databases.
Data Analysis
As stated by Mackey and Gass (2015), the two types of data analysis are quantitative and
qualitative data analysis. Quantitative data analysis method collects data from primary sources
and conduct survey questionnaire to perform analysis. On the other hand, qualitative data
analysis method deals with secondary data and perform analysis by creating themes related to the
research topic. In this study, qualitative data analysis method has been taken for analyzing
secondary data.
Ethical Considerations
The research has been done with proper ethical consideration. Themes have been created
related to the objectives of the study. Data and information related to the research has not been
published anywhere and not shared with any third party. Under the Data Protection Act 1998,
data has been kept secret and not shared with anyone. Collection of data and information has
been ethically taken from online journal and government databases with proper permission.
Online journals after year 2012 have been taken for data collection process.

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Chapter 4: Data Findings and Analysis
Data and information related to the application of autonomous vehicles have been taken
from secondary sources including online journals, books, articles and governmental databases
and reports. Data and information are thematically analyzed in this chapter. Three themes are
made related to application of autonomous vehicles.
Theme 1: Development and Deployment of Autonomous vehicles
Several vehicles in these days have low level of technologies including cruise control,
automated parallel parking and hazard warning. Several companies are working on developing
technology in the automobile industry to make autonomous cars and vehicles. Various
companies have announced for testing driverless taxis n road that may help in changing the
future of the automobile industry in the market. However, several attempts have been failed in
this process. The use of autonomous vehicles have been extracted from the concept of driverless
cars. However, robot can also be prepared for driving a car but it can be costly in order to make a
robot. The use if the autonomous vehicle in order to mitigate the traffic congestion problem has
been a great step in order to mitigating road accident issues. It can be used in all types of vehicles
including cars, truck, train and airplanes.
The use of the autonomous vehicles have helped in providing reliable and scalable
environment for travelling. These systems help in self-learn, and so could eventually recognize new
costumes and behaviors, but these will require new software coding that may interact unpredictably
with other driving instructions. This is not to suggest that autonomous driving is inherently harmful.
It simply illustrates one of many problems they face: new risks leading to solutions that further
increase system complexity and therefore potential failures. Autonomous vehicle technology has

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helped in minimizing various traffic issues in the UK; The use of the autonomous vehicle might
mitigate the traffic congestion in the country. The use of connected and autonomous vehicles
provides protection from accident risks and delays on road. Artificial indigence have find interest in
the development of the autonomous vehicles in the country the use of the artificial intelligence have
helped in developing various sensors that helps in driving vehicle without a driver.
Theme 2: Different threats and Vulnerabilities to traffic engineering and autonomous vehicles
Major vulnerabilities in autonomous vehicles are sensors connected in the vehicles. These
sensors help in smooth driving by sensing the road and protect from various road hazards. The
use if the sensors have smart sensor architecture that helps in providing proper impact on
behavior of the vehicle. However, Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANET) have been used in the
autonomous vehicles in order to maintain the security of the data and information related to the
passengers in the vehicles. The centralized infrastructure of smart sensor have helped in
manipulating the data and information stored in the sensor. Various sensor attacks have been
reported in recent years. These smart infrastructures are connected with the internet for accessing
proper routes and information. Therefore, hackers are targeting these sensors in order to breach
data and in for tion regarding the routing guide of the vehicle. Therefore, these vehicles do not
reach to its original destination.

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Figure 7: Use of VANET
(Source: Sharon and Stone, 2017, pp.129)
Cyber-attack has been prevailing in the autonomous vehicles and underlying various
necessary support. Various motivation program have been conducted in order to educate
regarding cyber-attacks in autonomous vehicles.
Theme 3: Risk management approach for autonomous vehicles
In recent years, there have been various changes in the automobile industry in the UK.
Various modification in the structure in the vehicle have helped in providing a smooth ride to the
passengers. The use of the autonomous vehicles have helped in maintaining new approach
towards the development of the automobile industry in the UK. It then identifies countermeasures
to ensure that the associated risks and their potential impacts following an attack are mitigated to an
acceptable level. However, it has been suffering with different consequences including cyber-
attacks and other failures. These risks have been identified in order to implement a risk
management process in this project. Risk management in cyber security is an ongoing process that
reduces risk by defining, analyzing and controlling threats to, and vulnerabilities of assets. The use of

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the risk management process in the autonomous vehicles have helped in minimizing road accidents
in the UK. The detailed report based on risks analysis for examining risks of cyber-attacks in two
autonomous vehicle applications proposed by Traffic Research Laboratory (TRL) has been provided
below:
Figure 8: Risk analysis of two autonomous vehicle application by TRL
(Source: Huang et al. 2017, pp.49)
The risk identified in R2 is a shared risk that has relate a remote attack through vehicle’s
remote diagnostic system. Various autonomous vehicle applications can bring new risks as
shown in the above figure. The use of the autonomous vehicle can be both positive and negative
effect in the society.

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Summary
This chapter consists of thematic analysis if the obtained data from online books, journals and
governmental databases. Data and information have been properly analyzed in order to get a
conclusion related to the application of connected and autonomous vehicles in the UK.

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Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations
Conclusion
It can be concluded that issues are prevailing in the traffic engineering system and
application of autonomous vehicles in the UK. The case study of Siemens Company identifying
risks and solutions integrated in the traffic system has been depicted in the study. The use of
autonomous vehicle have minimized pollution in the environment and reduced use of natural
resources including petrol and diesel. Autonomous vehicles require an innovative approach
toward cyber security issue prevailing in the technology.
The use of various sensors and advanced technology have been enhancing technology
used in the automobile industry. The approach towards autonomous vehicle technology has been
flexible in context of different solutions. Therefore, it provide benefits to travelers for removing
the burden on their family members and create new opportunity with economic productivity. The
cyber security risks have been described in the study that helps in maintaining a prior approach
developing traffic systems of the country.
Recommendations
It is recommended that:
 Use of advanced technology including cryptographic methods for securing data and
information. The database of the vehicle need st be inside the vehicle that might help in
protecting it from cyber-attacks.
 The low-speed internal vehicle communication system needs ti be replaced by high-speed
communication system that help in fast communication in the processor of the vehicle.

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Devices integrated in the fast communication needs to be covered with a firewall for
restricting third party interference during communication process.
 VANET needs to be properly designed in order to maintain a proper security layer over
the jamming techniques. The use of VANET in the jamming process helps in securing
data and information.

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Benderius, O., Berger, C. and Lundgren, V.M., 2017. The best rated human-machine interface
design for autonomous vehicles in the 2016 grand cooperative driving challenge. IEEE
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