Hydropower Systems: Analysis and Applications

This assignment delves into the complexities of hydropower systems, encompassing their technical aspects, environmental consequences, and role in modern power grids. Students are expected to analyze various types of hydropower plants, evaluate their efficiency and sustainability, and investigate the challenges associated with integrating them into existing grid infrastructures. The assignment also encourages critical thinking about the future of hydropower in a rapidly evolving energy landscape, considering factors such as climate change, renewable energy integration, and public perception.

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ECONOMICAL ELECTRICITY GENERATION FROM WASTE WATER

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Renewable energy is increasingly focused by not only the large scale to small scale
industries, but also by the individuals. There are various kinds of sources of renewable energy
and several ways of converting them into the conventional electric energy. Since, in technical
aspects, there are multiple methods and ways are available, most economic method is considered
by the small scale industries and also by the individuals. Hence, the hydroelectricity is one of the
most economical ways of converting the kinetic energy into potential energy. The project has the
focus on exploiting the kinetic energy that can be created using smaller water flow, from the
waste water, released from the households, after using water for household applications. The
waste water is considered as the input resource material to generate the electricity that can be
sufficient for driving the appliances used in the household. The project is focused on creating the
design and implementing the conversion of kinetic energy created by the flow of waste water
into the conventional energy, needed for a single house.

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Contents
ECONOMICAL ELECTRICITY GENERATION FROM WASTE WATER.....................5
Introduction..........................................................................................................................5
Literature Review................................................................................................................6
Hydropower.................................................................................................................................6
Water Energy...............................................................................................................................7
Advantages..................................................................................................................9
Disadvantages............................................................................................................10
Power Calculation......................................................................................................................10
Research Questions............................................................................................................11
Theoretical Content/Methodology.....................................................................................11
Energy Storage...........................................................................................................................11
Turbine.......................................................................................................................................11
Operation...................................................................................................................12
Classification.............................................................................................................12
Speed..........................................................................................................................13
Specific Speed...........................................................................................................13
Shape..........................................................................................................................14
Blade..........................................................................................................................14
Turbine Generator......................................................................................................14

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Experimental Set-up..........................................................................................................16
Results, Outcome and Relevance......................................................................................18
Project Planning and Gantt Chart......................................................................................18
Gantt Chart.................................................................................................................................20
Conclusions........................................................................................................................21
References..........................................................................................................................21

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ECONOMICAL ELECTRICITY GENERATION FROM WASTE WATER
Introduction
Renewable and economical energy is the current focus of the world, since it
can convert the energy from varied renewable energy sources into another form,
the electrical energy. Renewable energy is collected from the resources that can be
renewable, without result of any harm to the environment and so to the human
kind. The renewable resources are expected to be replenished naturally, like rain,
wind, waves, geothermal energy, tides, sunlight etc. Moving one step ahead, the
project is intended to use the waste resources that are going to create the water and
environmental pollutions and covert them into electrical energy. Here, the variation
is that the electrical energy that is going to be converted from the flow of
wastewater from the household is of lower level, because of the small scale project
(Sørensen, 2004). The electrical energy will be generated that is enough for the
household requirement of electricity.
There are three kinds of renewable energy created, hydro, solar and wind
electricity, primarily. Among these kinds, geothermal and hydro-electricity are the
cheapest or less expensive ways of electricity generation. When the conventional
methods are considered, small hydro and run-of-the-river methods of
hydroelectricity are followed, towards less hassle of not setting up larger reservoir.
The electrical energy that is going to be created from the flow of waste water
from the household is expected to generate through hydroelectricity, in this project
(Wehrli, 2011).

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Literature Review
Hydropower
The current share of hydroelectricity in the renewable energy is 3.9% of
hydro electricity, in terms of electricity consumption. The hydro electricity is
usually generated in larger scale, by employing the large dams, etc. In terms of
hydropower, total 16.6% of electricity is generated, in the world (Sørensen, 2004).
Hydropower can be generated by using water, since density of water is 800
times more than that of the air. So, water, even when it flows, from a moderate sea
swell or in a small stream can enable the generation of energy. Largest amount of
hydroelectricity is produced by China, having about 45,000 installations of hydro
power in smaller scale.
Figure: Hydroelectric System and Dam

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Water Energy
Energy can be generated by using water in different ways, as the following
(WI, 2012).
1. Reservoirs and Dams
Hydroelectric power comes from the large hydroelectric reservoirs and dams
construction, historically, in the world, since they can produce the energy in
larger scale. Such generation has been still popular in the third world
countries with the largest dams in descending are Three Gorges Dam, Itaipu
Dam and Praguay. Power generated from this larger scale method is of a few
giga watts.
2. Rivers
Rivers have been the good source of energy through small hydro systems,
with the installations of hydroelectric power and they can produce the
power, up to 50 Mega Watts. These systems are employed using larger rives
with impact development and small rivers used directly. Such systems have
the capability to generate up to 30 mega watts of power.
3. Run-of-the-river
Plants of run of the river hydroelectricity can generate the energy, from the
rivers, with no need of setting up larger reservoirs that are expensive and
time consuming. It derives the energy from the river, by using the kinetic
energy. Though it is a smaller set up of the installation and infrastructure, it
has the ability to produce the electricity in larger amount. Examples for such
systems are Chief Joseph Dam, in the US.
4. Micro Hydro
Micro hydro level installations of the hydroelectric power produce typically,
up to a power of 100 kW. Such systems are used for providing the electric
energy to the small community or even direct home, or may sometimes be

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connected to the networks of electric power. These systems stand as a source
of economical energy, who cannot afford to buy sufficient fuel, especially,
developing countries. They can complement the energy systems of
photovoltaic solar.
5. Pico Hydro
The range of hydroelectric power generated from the pico hydro is up to 5
kW. This smaller scale method can be useful for the remote and very small
communities that have smaller requirement of the electric power, such as a
TV, bulbs and a fan. It makes use of the 200 to 300 watts of power. Smaller
turbines with drop of 3 feet or 1 meter would be sufficient, for such
hydroelectricity generation. It is also called as run-of-stream.
6. Underground
The method makes use of the natural difference of height, in between the
two existing waterways, like Mountain Lake, waterfall. It makes use of the
tunnel in the underground to flow water to the generating hall, from higher
reservoir to the water tunnel lower point.
The pico hydro is the key point to generate the energy from the physical
flow of water, wasted in domestic applications, from the household (Staff, 2004).
Production of hydropower is present in total 150 countries so far. It should
be noted that the countries that have lion share of the production of electricity from
the renewable resources are hydroelectric, primarily. Having digested this fact,
smaller energy, in fact the electricity needed for the household appliances, could be
easily generated from the waste water that flows either above the ground or
flowing towards the underground. It also relieves the hassles from the tedious and

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expensive process of distribution of electricity, from the central electricity
generation grids (Sørensen, 2004).
Advantages
Water energy is the preferred renewable energy in the world so far, for the
following advantages (Engler, 2006).
1. Water is an easily available resource to convert into the required form of
energy.
2. Water is not consumed or wasted in the hydroelectricity.
3. It is not an expensive method of conversion of energy.
4. It allows distributed power generation, which is easier than the central power
generation and distributing with expensive infrastructure for the same.
5. There is no waste of energy generated.
6. The method releases no harm or pollutants to environment and so to the
human kind.
7. It does not allow diminishing the fossil fuel, which are less available and
limited.
8. Hydropower is flexible enough, since it can be changed up and down, so
easily and quickly to the dynamic changes of electricity demand.
9. High value power can be generated, because of the clean electricity
produced, from hydroelectricity.
10.The average electricity cost, from the hydro station is very less, of 3 to 5 US
cents for 10 megawatts, per kilowatt-hour.
11.Can produce intermittent energy
12.Lower operating labour cost
13.Low cost of construction for the dams and can be offset in shorter time.
14.Suitable for industrial applications also.
15.Reduced emissions of carbon dioxide

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16. The water reservoirs can also be used as tourist attractions and water sports
applications.
17. Aquaculture is possible in the reservoirs.
18.Can provide irrigation to the agriculture support, with regular and consistent
supply of water.
19.Floods can be controlled with hydro dams, otherwise would affect the
population that lives in the downstream.
Disadvantages
1. Loss of land damage of the ecosystem
2. Evaporation of water, though it is very less.
3. Shortage of siltation and flow
4. Emissions of methane
5. Relocation of the people, locally
6. Risks of failure
Power Calculation
At the hydroelectric station, the total electric power produced,
P = hrgk. (Saleh et al, 2016)
Here, ρ = water density,
r = rate of flow in m3 per second
h = height in meters
k = value ranges from 0 to 1, coefficient of efficiency
g = acceleration due to gravity, which is equal to 9.8 m/s2
and P = total power in watts

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The total production of electric energy annually is based on the water supply
that is available. The rate of water flow is varied at the rate of 10:1, usually, in a
year.
Research Questions
The following research questions are considered, in this project.
1. Can the smaller size water flow generate the electricity?
2. Can the electricity generated from the water flow, released from the
household and domestic water usage tasks, be useful for smaller or
household electricity applications?
3. Can the small scale electricity generation be able to drive the appliances
used in the household, such as the refrigerator, fan or can it drive the Air
Conditioner, etc.?
4. Can the system be scaled up, to increase the supply to more households?
Theoretical Content/Methodology
Energy Storage
Energy storage can be done with various methods of storing the electrical
energy. It is done either on or off the electrical power grid, for larger scale. Here, in
this context it is not a hassle, as the energy generated can be directly used by the
household, to which the energy is passed to it (Du & Robertson, 2017).
Turbine
A turbine is designed to convert to water potential energy from kinetic
energy, and is called as a rotary machine. They are used for the generation of the

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electric power. It has a component of motion that enables the turbine to become to
in a smaller size. It can increase the capacity of water, by processing more water
(Khalilpour & Vassallo, 2015).
A turbine consists of blades that enable the mechanism of rotation, creating
mechanical energy that would be converted to the electrical energy.
Operation
Water flow is directed to the turbine blades and force is created on the
blades. Then the runner starts spinning and enables through the distance, with the
‘work’ created. Finally, energy is transferred to the turbine from the flow of water.
Classification
Turbines are classified as impulse and reaction turbines (Brass et al,
2012).
1. Impulse Turbine
Impulse turbine has its function based on the change of water jet velocity.
The curved blades of the turbine are pushed by the jet and change the flow
direction. Then the force is created on the blades of the turbine. The fluid pressure
that flows over the rotating blades, in the impuse turbine is constant and the so the
all the output of work, because of the fluid’s kinetic energy change.
2. Reaction Turbine
It works on the Newton’s third law. The turbine has its function, based on
the reaction created by the pressure of the turbine, in moving blades and fixed
bladed. It has the applications in the larger power plants.
So, when the turbine is installed, the total power with the turbine, P would
be,
P = ρ *η*g*q*h

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Where, η is the efficiency of the turbine,
ρ = water density, in kg per m3
q = rate of flow in m3 per second
h = head in meters and is equal to the sum of velocity head pressure head
g = gravity acceleration, a constant value of 9.81 meter per square second
(Redfield, n.d)
Speed
Runway Speed
The water turbine runaway speed is the maximum speed that is measured at
full flow with no shaft load. It is the maximum tolerable speed, with which the
turbine can survive with maximum possible mechanical forces. So, the runaway
speed is usually specified by the speed rating, given by the manufacturer (Spicher
& Thomas, 2013).
Specific Speed
Turbine needs specific speed to be created and it should match to the
specific applications. The shape of the turbine is characterized by the specific
speed, ns. Usually, the scale of the design of the new turbine is considered, from
the existing or known performance of the design. The specific speed of the turbine
is considered as the matching factor, between turbine type and the hydro site. It is
defined as the speed, with which the turning of the turbine is done for a Q, a
specific discharge, with a unit head and so it enables unit power of production.
The speed of the turbine is varied based on the scaling. So, usually the
maximum speed of the turbine speed varies from 20,000 to 50,000 rpm, for larger
turbine and for the smaller scale hydroelectricity, from small water flow, it takes
only a few hundreds of rotations per minute.

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Shape
The water turbine blades have certain kind of precise shape. It is the basis
for the water supply pressure function and impeller type. Turbine blades are in a
rotating shape, so that when the water falls over the curve of the blade, it enables
the total structure, with which it is leveraged, to move, as a whole. And this is the
key point in shaping the blades of the turbine (Adhikary, 2013).
Blade
Usually, blades have the curved shape and are made with the material that
have higher strength and have corrosion resistance. Usually, austenitic steel allows
are used, in which chromium is present from 17% to 20%, so that the film stability
can be increased, improving the resistance of aqueous corrosion. Martensitic
stainless steels are currently used, as they have more strength, by 2 times than the
austenitic stainless steel. Selection of the blade is usually based on the strength and
corrosion resistance. Another important factor is the low weight that allows the
blades to move more easily.
Turbine Generator

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Figure: Turbine Generator
Turbine generator is the key unit that chosen and employed, based on the scaling of
the project. So, for the larger scale hydroelectricity system, it takes complex and
high rated turbine generator and small scale system takes low rated and less
complex turbine generator (Padhy & Senapati, 2015).
So, based on the generating methods, the total system of hydroelectricity system
can be classified as the following.
1. Conventional method of hydroelectricity
2. Pumped storage method
3. Run of the river method
4. Tidal method

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Experimental Set-up
The experiment is proposed and planned conducted to generate very small
scale, yet sufficient for the household electrical energy applications. The objective
is to design and implement economical electricity generation.
The project is intended to develop a pico hydropower system. The
experimental setup is going to have the following block diagram (Gummer & John,
2009).
Figure: Structural diagram of small scale hydropower
Turbine

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The turbine is expected to be set, as the following diagram, with the turbine
blades.
The experimental setup and the overall small scale hydropower system are
going to have the following units in it.
1. Turbine, for generation of electricity and it includes the generator, runner
and nozzles
2. Dump load, for absorbing the surplus energy
3. Penstock, or pipeline, for carrying the water towards the turbine
4. Diversion and intake screen, for directing the into the channel or pipe, from
the river or stream
5. Batteries, for storing the energy of turbine
6. Distributor or transmitter, for delivering the energy to its final user

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The experiment is set up for a household with an expected arrangement of
wastewater flowing towards steep downfall. The intake or weir is located on the
starting point of the channel to convey water. Penstock is placed on the steep slope
that ends at the turbine.
The mechanical energy is converted then to the electrical energy and it
would be connected to the appliances of the end-user, in the household (Whitakar,
2006).
Results, Outcome and Relevance
The final results expected and obtained from the generation of electricity
from the household wastewater, are the following.
1. A few kilowatt-hours can be generated.
2. The wastewater from the household can be sufficient, to generate the
kilowatt power.
3. Household electrical needs can be fulfilled.
4. The needs are fulfilled, with no need for the external or conventional
electricity.
5. The final resulting hydro power system can be completed within a hundred
US dollars.
Project Planning and Gantt Chart
Project planning is done, as given in the following work breakdown
structure.

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Task Name Dura
tion Start Finish
ELECTRICTY GENERAITON FROM
WASTEWATER
104
days
Mon
01-01-18
Thu 24-
05-18
Initiaton of Project 3
days
Mon
01-01-18
Wed
03-01-18
Meeting with project members 1
day
Mon
01-01-18
Mon
01-01-18
Deciding the roles of members 1
day
Tue 02-
01-18
Tue 02-
01-18
Allocation of the tasks 1
day
Wed
03-01-18
Wed
03-01-18
Design of the small scale hydro power
system
30
days
Thu 04-
01-18
Wed
14-02-18
Studying the existing designs 10
days
Thu 04-
01-18
Wed
17-01-18
Designing according to requirements 15
days
Thu 18-
01-18
Wed
07-02-18
Finalizing the design 5
days
Thu 08-
02-18
Wed
14-02-18
Gathering the resources 5
days
Thu 15-
02-18
Wed
21-02-18
Gathering financial resources 2
days
Thu 15-
02-18
Fri 16-
02-18
Gathering the components and
devices
3
days
Mon
19-02-18
Wed
21-02-18
Constructing the system 16
days
Thu 22-
02-18
Thu 15-
03-18
Draw the circuit 2
days
Thu 22-
02-18
Fri 23-
02-18
Connect the units 2
days
Mon
26-02-18
Tue 27-
02-18
Check the connections 2
days
Wed
28-02-18
Thu 01-
03-18
Test with input and output 5
days
Fri 02-
03-18
Thu 08-
03-18
Test with multiple or varied inputs 5
days
Fri 09-
03-18
Thu 15-
03-18
Optimizing the design 10
days
Fri 16-
03-18
Thu 29-
03-18
Optimize the input 5 Fri 16- Thu 22-

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days 03-18 03-18
Optimize the final output 5
days
Fri 23-
03-18
Thu 29-
03-18
Review, Corrections and Enhancement 15
days
Fri 30-
03-18
Thu 19-
04-18
Review of the project 6
days
Fri 30-
03-18
Fri 06-
04-18
Make Enhancements 6
days
Mon
09-04-18
Mon
16-04-18
Encase and housing the system 3
days
Tue 17-
04-18
Thu 19-
04-18
Submit 25
days
Fri 20-
04-18
Thu 24-
05-18
Prepare the report 15
days
Fri 20-
04-18
Thu 10-
05-18
Review the report 3
days
Fri 11-
05-18
Tue 22-
05-18
Submit the report 2
days
Wed
23-05-18
Thu 24-
05-18
Table: Work breakdown structure
Gantt Chart
The project schedule is shown as the following Gantt Chart.

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Figure: Gantt Chart
Conclusions
The project has been intended and commenced with the intent of following
and encouraging the renewable energy and self sustainability, without the need to
rely on the conventional energy. The wastewater, which would result in the water
pollution in the environment, is intended to use as a renewable resource of
generating the electricity that can make a household appliances to drive. The
project follows the hydroelectricity method and methodology to generate sufficient
power for the household appliances to drive and run. Pico hydroelectricity is the
key method used for this small scale generation of the electricity.
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