English Language and Linguistics | Q&A

ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS
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Question 1
Communication entails the transfer of information and is commonly associated with
human beings. Animals too are capable of communicating with one another or even with human
beings. Human language is the avenue that allows human beings to communicate and create an
understanding between one another. It is made up of symbols which translate to a given
conventional meaning1. Animal language, on the other hand, enables animals to communicate
certain messages which mostly express their feelings. Animal language is usually species-
specific and is not governed by any conventions2. Different animal species use different language
to communicate. For instance, while dogs bark, cows mow and goats bleat.
The major similarity that can be drawn from animal and human language is that both
animals manage to pass specific messages using their language. For instance, both humans and
cows are capable of expressing themselves when they are hungry. While a human being will use
words to say that he/she is hungry, a cow will moo. The use of sound characterises both human
language and animal language. Communication predominantly occurs through the use of sound
except in cases where non-verbal communication is employed3. Just like human beings, animals
produce certain sounds which help them to communicate. Both animals and human beings can
use non-verbal communication which does not allow the production of any sounds. Human
beings use various gestures to send varied messages. For instance, nodding indicates acceptance
while shaking means no. Some animals too are capable of using body movements to elicit certain
1 Birchenall, Leonardo Barón. "Animal communication and human language: An overview." International journal of
comparative psychology 29 (2016): 1-27.
2 Pepperberg, Irene M. "Animal language studies: What happened?" Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 24 (2017): 181-
185.
3 Mehler, Jacques. "Why is language unique to humans?" Novartis Foundation symposium 251, no. 80 (2016): 251-
280.

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messages. Among the primates, for example, eye contact coupled with the display of teeth
implies that a primate wants to challenge the status of the other. Honeybees’ round dance sends
the message that the nectar is near.
There are many differences that can be drawn from both animal and human
communication. Firstly, Human language is characterised by the duality of patterning while
animal language lacks any form of patterning. Human beings can use strings of sounds to create
a number of messages. Animals lack the ability to create varied messages as they are unable to
pattern sounds. For instance, human beings are able to create novel sentences at any time they
communicate. Animals, on the other hand, are incapable of doing this. A cow, for example,
cannot produce an extended moo to create a different meaning. Secondly, human language is
characterised by creativity. Human beings easily invent new vocabulary unlike animals which
have to evolve for their sounds to change. Thirdly, while human language can be used to talk
about abstract or imaginary entities, animal language is determined by context4. Animal language
does not exhibit the displacement characteristic like human language. Animals are only able to
react to aspects within their context. For instance, a dog cannot express how it can react to a
stranger outside the context. Fourthly, animal language tends to be gender-specific unlike human
language which is highly interchangeable. Both genders can use the same language among
human beings. There are certain communications in the animal language which can only be used
by a particular gender. For instance, while cocks crow, hens cackle.
Question 2
1. a (s/he) li (past) ku (you) piga (beat) = [alikupiga] s/he beat you
4 Josiah, Ubong E. "Between Arbitrariness And Logic: Revisiting Universal Traits in Natural Languages."
International Journal of English Language and Literature Studies 5, no. 1 (2016): 38-45.