Managing Environment Risk in Offshore Operations in Oil and Gas Industry

The study aims to identify the risk factors in offshore operations in the oil and gas industry and evaluate their impact. It also analyzes the measures taken by organizations to mitigate these risks and identifies gaps in their approach. The research recommends suitable strategies to bridge these gaps and maintain long-term sustainability in the environment.

Running head: DISSERTATION
Dissertation
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note

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Abstract
This is a study, which had highlighted the various environmental threats caused by the offshore
operations in oil and natural gas sector. Moreover, the research paper had analyzed the methods
that had already been applied by various organizations to mitigate the risk and new technological
methods that can be applied. Oil and gas industries are established all over the world and
different organization operate in different environment. There had been some differences in
policies in various organizations and the operational activities had significant impact on the
corresponding environment and the society. Thus, it is essential to take measures to mitigate the
risks of harming the corresponding environment and the study had analyzed the measures and
their implications in the managing the sustainability of the global ecosystem.

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Acknowledgement
By this research, I have experienced best possible learning of my life. By conducting this
research, I have learnt various concepts, models and theories. I first thank to the almighty God.
After that, I want to thank to my supervisor ______________ who is my friend, philosopher and
guide. I also thank my parents for being supportive and accommodative for completing this
research. I want to thank my friends for giving me the moral support while conducting this
research.

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Table of Content
CHAPTER 1....................................................................................................................................5
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................5
1.0 Introduction................................................................................................................................5
1.1 Background of the research.......................................................................................................5
1.2 Aim of the Research..................................................................................................................7
1.3 Research Objectives...................................................................................................................8
1.4 Research Question.....................................................................................................................8
CHAPTER 2....................................................................................................................................9
LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................................9
2.0 Literature Review......................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER 3..................................................................................................................................19
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..................................................................................................19
3.0 Research Methodology............................................................................................................19
3.1 Research Philosophy................................................................................................................20
3.2 Research Approach..................................................................................................................21
3.3 Data Collection........................................................................................................................23
CHAPTER 4..................................................................................................................................27
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS......................................................................................................27
4.0 Findings and analysis...............................................................................................................27
4.1 Risk factors..............................................................................................................................27
4.2 Global trends and impacts.......................................................................................................30
4.3 Discussion................................................................................................................................40

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CHAPTER 5..................................................................................................................................43
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION............................................................................43
5.0 Conclusion...............................................................................................................................43
5.1 Recommendation.....................................................................................................................44
6.0 Reflection.................................................................................................................................47
References......................................................................................................................................49

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Topic: Managing environment risk in offshore operations in the oil and gas industry
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
This is a study, which will highlight the various environmental threats caused by the
offshore operations in oil and natural gas sector. Moreover, the research paper will analyze the
methods that have already been applied by various organizations to mitigate the risk and new
technological methods that can be applied. Oil and gas industries are established all over the
world and different organization operate in different environment. There will be some
differences in policies in various organizations and the operational activities will have significant
impact on the corresponding environment and the society. Thus, it is essential to take measures
to mitigate the risks of harming the corresponding environment and the study will analyze the
measures and their implications in the managing the sustainability of the global ecosystem.
1.1 Background of the research
The recent trends in the market show that there has been a rise in the consumption of fuel
and energy in the industry. The production and consumption of fuel have increased significantly
since the year of 2013 (Griffin et al. 20014). Thus, the rising demand in the global economy will
risk the corresponding environment and society. Thus, the oil and natural gas organizations are
faced with challenges of fulfilling the energy demand by minimizing the negative impacts of its
operation on the environment. Even though, the industry has set benchmarks both nationally and

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internationally to incorporate best practices organizations but the majority of the problems faced
by the oil and natural gas industry are specific to sites, which consist of detail analysis of the
corresponidng environment, and identification of the precautionary measures as it cannot be
solved by using generalized frameworks. Thus, the organizations will have to develop their own
risk management systems so that they can mitigate the harmful effects on the environment and
society. Thus, environmental pro activity is essential, as unsustainable practices in operations
will pose serious threats to both local and global environment (Silvestre and Gimenes 2017).
Exploration of oil and gas causes threats of destroying habitats, loss in biodiversity and emission
of harmful gases in to the air.
UN report suggests that environmental damage due to corporate activities costs around
$2.2 trillion per annum and this cost is expected to rise to $28 trillion by the end of 2050
(Mendes et al. 2014). There has been rise in the emission of green house gases in to the
environment, which has increased the temperature in the atmosphere and sea level. Moreover,
the precipitation pattern has been altered due to global warming effect. Thus, it can be seen that
the operations of these oil and natural gas organization have not only threatened the quality of
the environment but at the same time has caused dramatic changes in the climatic conditions all
over the world.
Thus, environmental concerns will have to be incorporated in to the daily operations of
the organizations, as external sources have been ineffective in altering the environmental risk
valuation processes in corporate industry. Over the past decades, various environmental treaties
and frameworks have been developed for mitigating the risk of environmental degradation but
their effectiveness is limited. Thus, the major oil and natural gas organizations are facing various
challenges in offshore activities and managing environmental risks. Moreover, the national and

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global policies set by various countries are not effective and international protocols have not
been able to bring all the countries in agreement.
Thus, this study will aim to indentify standard practices, which can be used by the
organizations at a global level to mitigate the environmental hazards and risks. Bureau of Safety
and Environmental Enforcement (BSSE) are placed to monitor and regulate the offshore
activities in the oil and natural gas sector (Cordes et al. 2016). However, the rules are not
stringent enough which led to disasters such as Deepwater Horizon Spill in the year of 2010
(Cordes et al. 2016). Thus, integration of environmental risk management procedures in to the
organizations could be effective in mitigating the risk factors. The major global oil and natural
gas companies face issues in exploration and production of oil and gas. Thus, it has been
identified that the oil and natural gas organizations are facing challenges in keeping their short
term, goals in alignment with that of the long-term environmental impact. Thus, the
organizations are under immense pressure of fulfilling the goals and objectives of the
shareholders, and at the same time improving the environmental standards with the organization.
Thus, the study will be able to identify the essential measures that can be taken by the
organization to maintain the long-term sustainability in the environment (Ahi and Searcy 2013).
1.2 Aim of the Research
This study will aim to identify the methods that have been used by the oil and natural gas
organizations to manage the risk factors in offshore operations. The offshore operations by the
oil and natural gas industry will have significant impact on the marine life, which includes flora
and fauna of rare species. Moreover, hazardous events are quite frequent in this industry and the
offshore industries have experienced gruesome incidents of oil spills which has deeply impacted

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the corresponding ecology and it sustainability. Thus, the study will try to identify the various
risk factors involved in the offshore operations and how it can be mitigated by the organizations.
1.3 Research Objectives To identify the risk factors in the offshore operations in the oil and natural gas sector To evaluate the impact of offshore operations in the oil and natural gas sector To identify the measures that are taken by the organizations in the oil and natural gas
industry To evaluate the gap in the measures taken by the organizations in oil and gas industry To recommend suitable strategies in order to mitigate this research gap
1.4 Research Question What are the risk factors in the offshore operations in the oil and natural gas sector?
 What is the impact of risk factors in the offshore operations in the oil and natural gas
sector?
 What are the measures taken by the organizations in the oil and natural gas industry?
 What are the gaps in the measures taken by the organizations in oil and gas industry?

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Literature Review
According to, Shuen, Feiler and Teece (2014), the operations related to oil and gas
industry occur in every corner of the world and within a varied range of ecosystems as well as
habitats. The operations of this industry cause a lot of pressure on the environment locally and
the people living there as well. The production as well as consumption of the various fuels has
increased a lot. The global consumption and use of fossil fuels have also risen recently more than
the production which has led to rise in pressure for gas and oil. The demands of global energy
have risen to a new height in the recent years, which has led to high levels of risk as well as costs
with respect to the environment and society as well. The gas and the oil companies have to face
the major challenge of meeting the growing needs and demands of the world population. The
challenge is mainly to meet the demands of the population and also minimize the effects that are
caused by the operations of this industry.
As discussed by, Davies et al. (2014), the industry has to follow both national as well as
international rules and regulations regarding the best ways by which the operations of the
organizations have to follow. The organizations of these industries however have to face many
different issues which are specific to some sites and they cannot be addressed by the general rule
laid by the governments. The concerns and the risks associated with the operations of the
industry can be minimized with the help of systems of managing risks and different practices
related to the operations of the industry. This can help the industry in minimizing the effects that

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it causes on the environment where they operate and the harmful incidents that can occur as well.
The organizations need to embed the environmental concerns within each and every aspect of the
daily operations, so that they gain outcomes that are beneficial for the organization. The
organizations can also avoid any type of legislation that can be imposed on them or any disasters
as well (Werner et al. 2015).
According to, Cordes et al. (2016), the proactivity related to environmental issues is
necessary for the industry as the business processes related to the organizations that are
unsustainable in nature can pose huge threats on the environment both at the global as well as
local levels. The exploration related to gas and oil industries can threaten the habitats, can cause
losses related to biodiversity and also produce air emissions that are harmful in nature. The
incidents related oil spills can cause contamination of groundwater and soil and it can also
destroy the freshwater discharges and marine life as well. As reported by the UN, the costs
related to environmental damages caused by the corporate wastes have amounted to more than
$2.2 trillion in an annual basis and the costs that have been estimated in the next few years that is
till 2050 is around $28 trillion. The greenhouse gases that are emitted in the environment
constitutes around 50% of the total amount of air pollution and the rest 50% is accounted by the
water pollution (Tietenberg and Lewis 2016). The high levels of carbon dioxide have thereby
resulted in greenhouse gases and these gases can increase the temperature of the atmosphere as
well as the sea levels.
Kadir et al. (2015), state that, the quality of environment has been constantly threatened
by the oil operations of the multinational companies and have caused changes to conditions of
the habitat that has been exploited. The changes in the habitats have affected the lifestyles and
traditional cultures of the local populations of these areas. The use of land for the purpose of

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fishing, agriculture as well as hunting and logging has changed a lot due to the exploitation of the
resources. The health of the society and the safety of the environment is highly integrated with
the nature and this has posed consequences to the humanity that are dangerous in nature. The
companies related to oil and gas need to improve the ways by which they operate and their
practices and objectives as well so that the negative effects on the environment can also be
reduced.
As discussed by, Kark et al. (2015), the organizations that are operating in this industry
need to incorporate the concerns related to the environment into their daily operations. The
integration of procedures related to environmental risk management can help in minimizing the
challenges related to production of gas and oil. The ways of combating the issues related to
environment with the help of the foreign and domestic legislation has not been quite successful
for the companies. The environmental goals need to be a major part of the business goals of the
organizations. The internal values of the employees of the organizations need to be aligned to the
external views of the organization. The organizations or oil companies can gain a lot from the
ways of adjusting the process of decision making so that higher emphasis is placed on the
preventive measures.
According to, Ronconi, Allard and Taylor (2015), the risks related to the environment are
highly unpredictable in nature and this major challenge for the oil and gas companies as they
cannot precisely predict the effects of these environmental issues. The organizations need to face
the huge challenge of aligning the short-term related to financial benefits with the long-term
goals of the organizations related to environment. The organizations need to deliver returns that
are high to the shareholders as well as look after the social good. The image of the organization
also needs to be managed so that the internal values are related to external operations. The

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monetary factors related to environmental issues and performing cost-benefit analysis related to
this can provide huge gains to the organizations as the shareholders can also agree in spending
extra amounts regarding this purpose. The high levels of integration of the safety and human
health with the risks related to the environment has made the environmental issues a primary
concern for the companies. The combination of the national and international regulations related
risk management approaches internally can alleviate the negative effects that can be caused by
the gas and oil activities.
Papadopoulou and Antoniou (2014), state that, the major goal related to
internationalization of risks related to the environment is to reduce the environmental impacts of
the organizational activities and the severe incidents that can occur as a result of production,
exploration and refining processes of gas and oil. The number of incidents can be minimized and
the risks can also be mitigated and this will help the organization in addressing issues such as
environmental pollution, accidents related to the industries and global changes in the climate.
The gas and oil companies have huge capacities to improve the practices that are related to the
prevent strong legislations in the future and also to increase the profitability of the organizations
by minimizing the fines that are needed to be paid by the companies annually. The process of
integrating the practices related to risk management in all the aspects of the business should be a
major objective of all the organizations of this industry. The improvement of environmental
performance of the organizations helps in increasing the competitive advantage of the
organizations in the market.
According to, Johansen and Rausand (2015), the traditional approaches that are related to
the process of addressing the environmental risks related to the business can be compared to the
manner by which the companies try to tackle the financial risks. The companies need to

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determine and analyse all the possible risks associated to a business before taking up any
particular project. The company needs to analyse the costs related to social and environmental
risks by performing a cost-benefit analysis. The method of risk analysis will be able to provide
immense help to improve the suppleness of the decided framework. The information quality that
is provided to the organizations acts as a major challenge for the organizations as the events that
occur with respect to environment are quite unpredictable. The gas and oil companies are
therefore trying to tackle the various environmental challenges by incorporating risk
management approaches that are less traditional.
As discussed by, Lee et al. (2015), the traditional approaches of risk management are
mainly cost-benefit analyses of the various processes that are being implemented. There are
however many other strategies related to risk management in the organizations. The employees
of the organizations need to be encouraged so that they comply with the corporate strategies of
risk management. The companies need to undertake this activity with the help of company
statement and annual publications. The importance of the various environmental threats related
to the operations of the companies and the other concerns need to be made clear in the minds of
the employees.
According to, Fraser (2014), the gas and oil companies of the modern times now use
approaches based on incentives that are provided to the employees based on the activities in
which they take part based on minimizing the impacts on environment. The abilities of the
employees to stick to the various approaches that the companies have to undertake for preserving
the environment is essential in nature. The processes of the companies to link the issues of job
retention and promotion to the environmental performance of the employees helps in increasing
the awareness of the employees related to the environment.

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According to Akinremi et al. (2015), an internal environmental social health impact has
been applied in different kind of capital projects. ESHIA helps in proper identification of the
different significant impacts through proper systematic approach that is based on risk. The entire
process of ESHIA generally relies on inputs from different stakeholders that include proper
partners as well as different local communities as this will help in ensuring that the projects are
properly carried out in the most unique manner that is safe in nature as well. The main aim of
ESHIA is to properly protect the health of different humans as well as the entire environment as
this will minimize different potential liabilities from different operations as well as other
promoting consistencies between as well as within the entire process.
On the other hand, Tietenberg and Lewis (2016), the entire process of ESHIA is
extremely valuable in nature as this will help in providing a proper as well as better
understanding of the different potential social as well as environmental impact that are properly
associated with different operations. The proper combination of the different operational
excellence system of management as well as ESHIA helps in justifying the entire spending on
prevention of the environmental risk that can have huge impact on the sustainability of the
environment as well. On the other hand, (Firestone et al. 2015), there are broad settings of proper
tools of decision making wherein there is proper flexibility that can be implemented in such a
basis that can be properly monitored with the help of leadership qualities as well.
Proper training of employees is essential in nature as there is huge amount of fund that
has been invested on the training as well as education of the employees. The proper training of
employees helps in analyzing the importance of the management of the environmental risks at
each and every stage of gas as well as oil operations. There are different companies that rely on
the different internal kind of links that helps in development of different response of systems in

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case of different severe incidents. There are different initiatives on training that are critical in
nature as this will help in development of the attitude of employees as these are necessary as to
mitigate the different impacts of incidents related to environment and this will prevent such
incidents from occurring at all (Beske and Seuring 2014). There are different companies that will
consistently look into proper improvement of different operational activities as well as their
effectiveness that will help in accomplishing through properly educating the employees and
implementing different educational programs as well (Kadir et al. 2015).
According to Johansen and Rausand (2015), there are different companies wherein there
are different initiatives that is based on analysis of the environmental risk management
objectives that will be based on proper profitability of the entire corporation. The actual reason
behind the entire system is that there are different executives who properly wanted operational
managers as this will help in setting safety as well as environmental goals that can be monetary
bonuses as well. There is a challenge with implementation of the system that is based on bonus is
that there is a strain in the short term financial gain as well as long term environmental
protection.
The different companies ensure that all the employees in the organization are properly
aware about the environmental risks that are properly associated with different kind of
operations. Furthermore, there are promotion incentives that are lacking in the explicit
punishments for the different lapses in the different compliances and this will help in analyzing
the different objectives that are neglected in achievement of the environmental objective as well
(Wagner, Mizgier and Arnez 2014).
There are different companies who have adopted the external risk management
approaches as this will help in integrating the different environmental considerations that can

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have huge impact on the daily operations in business. The entire company made proper decision
that will help in implementation of self insurance kind of policy as this will help in gaining
proper coverage of about $200 million (Cordes et al. 2016). There is proper justification of
insurance policy as this will help in implementation of different objectives that will help in
properly implementation of different approaches that will help in reduction of the issues related
to the different industries and this will help in understanding the oil and gas industries has to
implement strategies that will help in reducing such issues as well.
According to Ladd (2014), there are different consequences of poor environmental risk
management wherein different companies provides a proper as well as exemplary case of
different benefits that can be properly reaped from different developing integrated risk
management, however there are other companies wherein there are different challenges related to
environment in different kind of operations. However, on the other hand there neglecting site
specific risks that can have huge negative impact on the different organizations.
Mendes et al. (2014) commented that there are different factors that lead to different
spilling of oil as well as gas in different companies. There is lack of approaches for risk
management and this resulted in different unexpected changes in the project plan as well. The
failure of both companies as well as crew members to respond and observe has been alarming in
nature and this indicates that there can be different kind of explosions that can have huge impact
on the different irregularities in the hours that is preceding the explosion. There has been a
different investigation that is following the catastrophe that helps in indicating that the lead level
engineer has detected different kind of abnormalities that ignored different kind of warning signs
along with preceded the entire business in a positive manner as well.

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There are different internal regulations such as OEMS, ESHIA along with proper training
of employees in the organization that can help different organizations in identifying the different
kind of risks that are potential in nature along with development of proper as well as specific
response to such kind of risks as well (Mazur 2016). Relying on such kind of standards that are
internal in nature will properly enforce different corporate environmental framework that is
responsive in nature will help in ensuring that the different units in different companies are
properly understanding the different standards that are specified in nature. The kind of incentive
system is crucial in nature as this will help in embedding different environmental considerations
in the daily activities as there are different managers in different organizations wherein their
tasks can be properly evaluated with the own environmental performance as well as performance
of the different substitutes.
There are different external efforts that help in integrating different environmental
concerns that will help in achieving different objectives that can help in sorting such issues and
solving the matter as well (ALNabhani, Khan and Yang 2017). The ineffective as well as
unapparent approaches related to risk management that are utilized by different companies
indicates there is huge risk that is involved in different oil as well as gas companies wherein they
face fail of different operations. Following the entire spill, it has been seen that there are different
environmental kind of risks that has to be properly analyzed as this will help in understanding the
environmental kind of considerations and this will have huge impact on the entire process of
decision making process.
There is complete lack of different perceptions of public that will provide proper
emphasis on the different kind of environmental considerations. There is complete lack of
different process of response as well as other decision making operations that has to be properly

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taken care as this will help in understanding the different reputations of brand that has to be
properly addressed as this will help in understanding the different laws as well as regulations that
are required to identify the sustainability that is required in the environment from the oil as well
as gas companies. According to Patterson et al. (2017), there is different oil as well as gas
companies that face different as well as extreme pressures as this will provide the entire world
with global energy that is required in maintaining proper environmental performance. While
there are different national as well as international regulations that will properly provide partial
kind of solution as this will help in addressing threats from the entire global environment, this
will help in providing solution to such issues and this will help in creating proper regulations and
avoid different threats from the oil as well as gas companies.
There are different companies such as Chevron wherein they have found a proper way or
technique as this will help in founding a proper way as this will properly as well as successfully
tackle different daily energy activities. The particular company is trying to able to focus on the
different attention on employees as this will help in minimizing the different probability of
detrimental risks. The company is further prepared as this will help in analyzing the different
risks and solve such with proper implementation of different strategies. There are different
companies who adopt different approaches of analysis, as this will help in adopting a systematic
environmental analysis, as this will help in establishing proper standards as well.

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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Research Methodology
The various research methods, approaches and designs will be depicted in this chapter of
the study. The use of appropriate research methodology is crucial and carries a lot of significance
in the study (Li et al. 2014). However, recognition of the apt research methodology is not
enough, implementation and execution of the paradigms is important for achieving the goals and
objectives of the study. This chapter has provided valid justifications for choosing each of the
paradigms, positives and negatives of each of methods and designs have been mentioned. As
opined by Eriksson and Kovalainen (2015), fixed set of assumptions have been taken to conduct
the study. Eriksson and Kovalainen (2015) states that research methodology should be developed
in such a way that it will be able to replicate the results when used in similar studies.

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Figure 1: Research onion Model
(Source: Eriksson and Kovalainen 2015)
3.1 Research Philosophy
The research philosophy in a paper provides a brief understanding of the process of data
collection, analysis and use. The researchers in academics and business research use four
primary types of research philosophy that are realism, positivism, post positivism and
interpretivism. The philosophy of realism considers the reality different from the human
influence and requires scientific approach for understanding. Concept of positivism on the other
hand rejects the idea of metaphysics and seeks the hidden trust in phenomenon under study
(Eriksson and Kovalainen 2015). The truth is revealed by observation and facts. This in turn
facilitates in gaining factual knowledge. Post positivism on contrary denies the doctrines of

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positivism and makes no distinction between the day to day thinking and scientific way of
thinking. This considers both the way similar with minute difference. Lastly, interpritivism
incorporates human interest in the process of interpreting the elements in the study. This
amalgamates various approaches of research like phenomenology, constructivism and
hermeneutics.
Figure 2: Research Philosophy
(Source: Eriksson and Kovalainen 2015)
Justification for selecting positivism
The purpose of this research requires the use of positivism as it helps in uncovering the
hidden truth within the fact. Positivism will help in observing the underlying truth within the
themes and increase the knowledge associated. The observation study in turn will help in
conducting descriptive study on the research topic for analysing the collected data. The prevalent
themes of the topic can be tested through the hypothesis testing.

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3.2 Research Approach
There a two possible approaches that can be used in a research depending on the testing
of hypothesis. Collins (2010) identified the utility of deductive approach in validating various
assumption made in the research; whereas, inductive approach is utilised when the research
paper is aiming to formulate new theories and generalisation. The research utilising the deductive
approach will start the research by formulating research hypothesis, followed by validation of the
formulated hypothesis. Inductive approach on the other hand will start with the formulation of
research question, which will be justified in the course of research. This process ends with the
formulation of new theories from the findings of the research. This research will be using the
deductive approach as this study and identifies the validity of already existing theories in the
selected field.
Figure 3: Research Approach

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(Source: Collins 2010)
Justification for selecting the deductive approach
This particular study identifies various themes on the research topic and identifies its
validity. Henceforth, the deductive approach will be useful in this case as it will help formulating
hypothesis and validating them through the analysis of the findings. It will further help in
drawing conclusion from the study basing on the facts. There is no need for establishing new
theories, which makes the inductive approach useless in this case.
3.3 Data Collection
Two types of data can be used in researches that are primary and secondary. The primary
data are those that are collected firsthand from the primary resources. Questionnaires open end
interview schedules and other research methods are utilised for collecting the qualitative and
quantitative data collection in the primary data collection (Wilcox et a 2012). However, the
secondary data collection method will be utilised in for this particular research. The data that are
collected by someone other than the researcher are called as secondary data. The sources of
secondary data can be both academic and non-academic. This includes the peered review journal
articles, journals and books are considered as the academic sources of secondary data. Non-
academic sources on the other hand are authentic newspaper articles, government data, census
data and other such authentic data that are supported and verified by the established institutions
(Christensen et al 2011). All the resources mentioned above will be utilised for the completion of

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this research paper. The purpose of the data collection is to identify the patterns of strategies
selected by the offshore oil extracting organisation for preventing adverse impact on the
organisations. It is to identify various themes in the topic selected for the research. Comparison
of the existing themes is necessary for the verification of the hypothesis formulated.
3.4 Data Analysis
Data analysis on the other hand is the process of examining the data collected. The
method of data analysis for this particular research is thematic analysis as the data that are
collected for verification is secondary. It is one of the popular analytical tools used in qualitative
research. The process of thematic data analysis involves pinpointing, examining and recording
patters in the collected data (Grbich 2012). The themes as mention are the patters that can be
identified in the collected data sets. The purpose of identification of the pattern is to describe the
phenomenon under study. It helps in identifying the answers for the research questions (Guest,
MacQueen and Namey 2011). The thematic analysis in this case will identify the pattern of risk
in the offshore oil extracting organisations. It will identify the process of risk management in the
facilities for preventing the adverse environmental impact that might occur. Moreover, the types
of threats and the risk management strategies will be analysed for understanding the effectively
of the strategies.
3.5 Sampling
Sampling is an important part for conducting a research as there are limitations in dealing
with the larger population size. Primarily, conducting research on the complete population will
be both expensive and time consuming. Moreover, the data accumulated from the complete
population is hard to handle (Levy and Lemeshow 2013). Hence, the researcher chooses a

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smaller segment within the complete population that reflects the similar trends. The outcome of
the research on the smaller population represents the whole population. This is called sampling
in the field of research. There are basically two types of research sampling method utilised that
are probabilistic and non-probabilistic sampling. Random selection method is utilised in the
probabilistic sampling method, whereas the researcher deliberately selects the particular segment
of the society in case of non-probabilistic sampling (Baker et al 2013). The accuracy of
probabilistic sampling is greater than non-probabilistic as the later has influence of the
researcher’s perception. The probabilistic sampling is of three types that are simple random
sampling, stratified random sampling and systematic random sampling (Lemmer and Kanal
2014). Every part of the population in this case has the equal opportunity in the selection process
that increases the reliability and accuracy of the data acquired. Sampling in this case is not
directly implemented as the data are accumulated form the secondary sources. However, focus
was given on the selection of the journals used in the research to maintain the variation of the
themes being studied.
3.6 Reliability and Validity
As defined by Noble and Smith (2015), the reliability of a research depends on the
possibility to generate similar outcome using similar instruments. In other terms, the reliability of
a research is only attained if the outcome remains similar if the similar research instruments are
utilised on similar field. Validity of a research on the other hand depends on the degree of
scientific methods incorporated for the completion of the research. As opined by McDonald et al.
(2013), validity of a research is determined by the degree of appropriate elements measured in a
research. This research can be considered as reliable as the finding of the study can be

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reproduced using similar tools used in the research. Validity of the research is also justified as
the research followed proper scientific methodologies in the process (Brandenburg et al. 2014).
3.7 Ethical Consideration
Following the ethical boundaries is of primary importance for any research work being
conducted. It is to hold the interest of the stakeholders involved and to ensure their safety.
Hence, the research has been conducted considering the ethical dilemmas (Golicic and Smith
2013). As this particular study is based on the secondary data accumulated from both the
academic and non-academic sources, the acknowledgement is properly done. The credit is
properly given to the sources from where the data has been gathered. Citation is given for the
data in accurate places where they are used in the research paper. The material provided in this
paper is authentic and not present in previous studies. Hence, the Data protection Act is properly
maintained following the guideline provided (Miller et al 2012).

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CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
4.0 Findings and analysis
4.1 Risk factors
The risk factors in the offshore operations of oil and natural gas industry are as follows:
 Marine and coastal ecology- offshore operations in the oil and natural gas industry has an
impact on marine and coral diversity. The tanker spills and coastal operations have
affected the operation especially in the Arctic region as the freezing condition will
hamper the cleaning up of the activities. There is irreversible impact of the industry on
the social habitats, which consists of coastal ecology, marine ecology, rainforests,
wetlands and other protected areas.
 Change in climate- The operations of the organizations have affected the climate, the
industry is resource dependent that has made the fossil fuels limited. Moreover, ozone
layer depletion, global warming and green house effect are long term effect of refining
and processing
 Impact on sector due to climatic change- The sector has been impacted due to climatic
change, the production is facing increasing risk due to extreme weather conditions. The
sea level is rising each year and availability is decreasing at a rapid rate.
 Health and safety issues- this industry is prone to accidents, oil spills, leaks and
explosions.

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The various processes in the oil and natural gas industry will have different level of impact
on the corresponding environment. Seismic survey will result in depletion of habitats,
degradation and fragmentation, atmospheric emissions, visual impact and landscape scarring.
The extraction of oil and gas requires huge amount of resources, which includes clearance of
land (Pagell and Shevchenko 2014). This will result in loss of vegetation and erosion of soil. The
companies in the industry generally have to clear the project sited by use of explosives which
causes depletion of habitats and vegetation. The plants that have been developed for extracting
the products cause emission of gases, which are major contributor to green house effect
(Ronconi, Allard and Taylor 2015). This is also causing degradation in the quality of air in the
corresponding environment and fragmentation of the habitats in that region. Exploratory drilling
is a method, which has a risk of cuttings and drill muds, gas venting, flaring and natural hazards.
This may result in explosion and spills, and the natural hazards give rise to the risk of blow out
of wells and contamination of land and water (Lozano 2015). Thus, it has been identified that
majority of processes and oil and natural gas production causes risk of contamination of land and
water, emission of harmful gases into the atmosphere which has caused a drastic change in the
climatic condition. Thus, with the increase in consumption of energy, there has been a steady
increase in the demand of the fuel. Thus, the organizations are facing issues in meeting the
demand as they are facing issues in maintaining a balance between the between economic impact
and environmental environment. Thus, the mitigation techniques will have to be identified which
can improve the sustainability of the corresponding environment (Meixell and Luoma 2015).

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Figure:
Source: (Ronconi, Allard and Taylor 2015)
The above diagram is the pictorial representation of the environmental effect on the oil
and natural gas industry. Seismic survey is used to identify the likelihood of hydrocarbons under
the seabed by using high intensity sounds. This is harmful to underwater life as the sound causes
disturbances resulting in the death of larval fishes. Thus, the spawning fishes are harmed which
will move away from the spawning areas which is decrease the productivity of fishes in that area.
This may cause a shift in balance in the ecology in water, so the organizations will have to
evaluate the corresponding before starting the overall process (Fraser 2014). Similarly, the other
processes will have similar impact on the biodiversity in water. Water contamination is very
common in these cases and previous incidents have caused enormous oil spills, which has killed
millions of fauna. The figure shows that the oil and natural gas industry is causing air and water
pollution at the same time. The diagram process shows the contamination process in which the

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water bodies are being contaminated at first. Evaporation is a process in which the water turns in
to gas, which is contaminating the environment due to the oxidation of the chemicals that leads
to the formation of CO2 and nitrides that causes global warming, greenhouse effect and ozone
layer depletion.
4.2 Global trends and impacts
The global trends show that the operations in the offshore oil and gas industry have
increased significantly due to increase in energy consumption. Thus, the offshore oil and gas
companies are bound to include the shallow waters in order to maintain their own sustainability
in the market. Thus, the organizations are making use of the deep slope and coastal water to
increase the production of fuel. The environmental factors have an impact on the operations of
the oil and natural gas industry and at the same time the vice versa in applicable (Rodrigues et al.
2015). The operations in offshore sites will have an impact on the flora and fauna in that region
due to the discharges from various operational activities. The main concern is the fact that the
offshore operations are having a profound effect on the marine organisms due to the discharge of
operational waste. Drilling waste, which consists of hydrocarbon containing strata, is of the
highest volume among the waste in the exploration process. These wastes will consist of
concentration of different materials such as chemical agents, nutrients, metals, hydrocarbons and
radionuclide. These materials will have an impact on the marine biodiversity and causing an
imbalance to the sustainability of the environment.
The department of Business, Energy and industry in United Kingdom, regulates the
offshore emissions and discharges. Thus, all the discharges to the sea and emission to the
atmosphere will have to be reported to the regulatory body in order to gain the permit they

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require. The United Kingdom continental shelf is facing issues and challenges in maintaining
the efficiency and performance of the environmental measures in the oil and natural gas sector.
He total amount water produced in the industry has been declining over the years in the UKCS.
Moreover, the decrease in production of water has been more than the produced water and this is
because of the fact that it is difficult to reach and extract hydrocarbons in the mature basins. In
the year of 2015, the production of water has been 202 million cubic metres, which can be
accounted to 69% of the total liquid fluids. This indicatre3s that there has been 7.5% increase in
produced water which when compared to the 10.4% increase in the production will denote that
best possible measures have been taken in to minimize the discharge of produced water (Mendes
et al. 2014). It has been seen that the volume of produced water have decreased significantly
since the last decade. There are certain alternative to discharge which consist of reinjection of
produced water into the substrata that is suitable. This reinjection has been carried out since the
year of 2001, which shows that in the year of 2015, one of the fifth of water that has been
produced has been re injected.

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Figure:
(Source: Kelland 2014 )
When compared to the international and global trends it is seen that 0.6 tonnes of water
produced was discharged and in UKCS 0.4 tonnes were discharged in the year of 2015. This
shows that the UKCS is facing many issues due to the challenging environment they have work
through when compared to the other basins in the world. Thus, it is expected that the production
of water will be more in United Kingdom when compared to the global context. This produced
water consists of hydrocarbons, which will adverse effect on the corresponding environment.
The produced water gathers the naturally occurring materials in the reservoir that will consist of
organic compounds, radioactive materials and organic products that are dissolved. When the
produced water is discharged, it will rapidly interact with the marine environment. Thus, this
shows that the discharged will contaminate and affect the marine life in that region.

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In year of 2015, 2300 tonnes of oil was discharged along with the produced water, which
constitutes 0.001% of the total water discharged. This shows that there has been significant
decrease in oil content in discharged water. This discharged oil in to the marine environment is
minimal, thus, the harmful chemicals will be dispersed and diluted in the Water body (Barker
and Jones 2013). However, this is not the same in the global context and in Norway, the amount
of oil in pr4oduced water have increased significantly till the year of 2014 and it decreased a bit
in the year of 2015.
Figure:
(Source: Barker and Jones 2013)
The discharge of radioactive materials in to the marine environment is controlled by the
act of 1993. Even though, there are many radioactive elements, which are present in the marine
waters, the naturally occurring radioactive materials developed in to the produced water will
consist of uranium and thorium, which have the possibility of dissolving in the water. This,

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radioactive materials will have no impact on the marine life and health of the corresponding
environment. thus, the regulations states that there discharge of radioactive materials (R-226) in
to marine life forms will be less 0.1becquerel per millilitre. The organizations need to face the
huge challenge of aligning the short-term related to financial benefits with the long-term goals of
the organizations related to environment. The organizations need to deliver returns that are high
to the shareholders as well as look after the social good. The image of the organization also
needs to be managed so that the internal values are related to external operations (Anifowose et
al. 2016). The monetary factors related to environmental issues and performing cost-benefit
analysis related to this can provide huge gains to the organizations as the shareholders can also
agree in spending extra amounts regarding this purpose. The high levels of integration of the
safety and human health with the risks related to the environment has made the environmental
issues a primary concern for the companies. The combination of the national and international
regulations related risk management approaches internally can alleviate the negative effects that
can be caused by the gas and oil activities.
Thus, the offshore organizations will take permission before discharging of the produced
water and the current trends shows that there has been a decrease in the release in radioactive
materials in to the marine body in the year of 2015. The amount of radioactive element
discharged in to the marine water is dependent on the condition of the reservoir and the amount
of water produced. This is directly linked to the production of oil and with the increase in the
demand of fuel, it is expected that there will be an increase in amount of water that has been
discharged in to the marine water body. Thus, in the global context the increase in production of
oil will steadily increase the amount of radioactive discharge in to the marine life forms.

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.
Figure:
(Source: Anifowose et al. 2016)
Similarly, the discharge of chemicals in to the marine water is regulated by the act of
2002, which has been later on amended in the year of 2011. The use of chemicals is eminent in
exploration and production phase of the hydrocarbons and the usage of the materials will have to
be restricted strictly in order to reduce the environmental impact. Therefore, the chemicals that
have been registered under the regulatory body can be used in the production process of oil and
natural gas industry. The regulatory contains the list of chemicals, which could pose a threat to
the marine environment, and the produced water is examined to identify the chemicals involved
so that the discharge of harmful chemicals can be minimized. The recent trend suggests that in
the year of 2015, 102,500 tonnes of chemicals have been discharged in to the marine
environment. The majority of the chemicals have been discharged due to the drilling activities.

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Thus, it can be seen that majority of the chemicals are discharged in to the marine environment
from the drilling activities and there has been reduction in drilling activities in by 30% in the
year of 2000. Therefore, the amounts of chemicals released due to the drilling activities have
been decreased significantly in the last few years. However, in some of the region do the drilling
activities have increased due to the complexity of drilling in to the wells. Now a day, specialised
chemicals have been for production of oil and natural gas so that equipment integrity can be
maintained. Demulsifiers are materials used for improvement in the separation of oil from water,
corrosion inhibitors are used for protecting the costly equipments and scale inhibitors are used
for slowing of scale building in to the valves and the pipelines. Moreover, bio acids are used to
reduce the growth of marine organizations on the equipments (Fraser 2014). Therefore, there has
been a fluctuation in the discharge of the materials in to the marine environment depending on
production, there has been decrease and increase in release. In the year of 2015, there has been a
steady increase in the discharge of chemicals in to the marine environment due to the increase in
the production of oil and natural gas. It is expe3cted to increase even further as fuel consumption
is also increasing at a rapid rate. The pipeline chemicals are used for maintaining the pipelines
that consist of oxygen scavengers and bio acids. The year of 2015 recorded 10 largest discharges
in to the marine environment due to discharge from eight pipelines that have been undergoing
major changes or repair.

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Figure:
(Source: Fraser 2014)
The chemicals that are used in the processes are returned to the shore or reused. The
chemicals are reused for four times before being discharged in to the marine environment. The
pipeline chemicals are used twice and thus, it can be seen that majority of the chemicals are
reused and sent to the shore. The OSPAR quality report on the impact of human activity on the
marine environment states that it is expected that one third of the chemical discharge will be
reduced by the end of 2020.
Similarly, as there is impact of the offshore operations on the marine environment there is
significant impact on the corresponding atmosphere due to emission of harmful gases in to the
environment. The extraction, export and stabilization of hydrocarbons consist of similar

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processes, which will be cause of emission of harmful gases in to the atmosphere. These will
consist of combustion which is used for providing power and driving of pumps and compressors,
and flaring gases in order to maintain the safety during the testing of well. There are also
accidental releases from fire fighting, tank loading and refrigeration equipments. Flaring and
combustion will result in the release of gases like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane,
sulphur and oxides of nitrogen. This also consists of the release of combustible gases such as
VOCs and methane during loading of tanks, where as fire fighting will lead to the release of
halons (Rodrigues et al. 2015). There are six greenhouse gases which has been defined in the
Kyoto protocol and they are CO2, hydro fluorocarbons, CH4, N2O, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
and per fluorocarbons (PFCs). The changes in the global climate are due to these harmful gases
and the emission is eminent from the activities in the offshore operations and refining processes.
The atmospheric emission has been placed under similar rules by the regulatory body, which
monitors the emission of greenhouse gases, measures it and manages to improve the
sustainability of the corresponding. Thus, there are more than 20 legal instruments, which are
used to monitor the impact of offshore operations in to the organization.
In the year of 2015, it has been seen that there has been a release of 14.7 million tonnes
of CO2 ,which constitutes 3% of the total emission in the United Kingdom. The recent trend
suggest that there is has been steady decrease in the emission of the green house gases since
2000 in United Kingdom. The decline in production of offshore gases has been very much
effective in reducing the emission offshore gases in to the atmosphere. Moreover, the
advancement of technology have reduced the emission of gases form the newer projects in the
offshore oil and natural gas industry. However, due to the increase in production in the year of
2015, there has been an increase in emission of gases in to corresponding environment. the

39DISSERTATION
majority of emission of carbon dioxide is from combustion equipments which is used for drive
compressors and electrical power generation. The operation units are not connected to the
national power grids and so these equipments are required to generate power for operational
activities such as oil pumps running, production processes, offshore installation, compression
equipments and transportation of equipments. Thus, it can be seen that the emission of the
greenhouse gases is more from the operational activities than the actual production process.
Thus, it is predicted that the emission will keep on increase with the increase in demand of the
product.
Figure:
(Source: Ronconi, Allard and Taylor 2015)

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Figure:
(Source: Ronconi, Allard and Taylor 2015)
The figure effective shows production is linked to emission of greenhouse gases in to the
atmosphere. The production was decreasing since 200 but also shows the increase in production
in the year of 2015 due to the increase in demand of oil and natural in global context. Thus, there
has been decrease in emission of greenhouse even though the production increases due to the
intensity in carbon emission.
4.3 Discussion
The recent trends in the market shows that measures have been taken by the regulatory
body for maintaining the risk factor in the industry. The regulatory body has been using

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benchmarking for managing the change in the industry, which monitors the emissions in the
environment t on the yearly basis. Moreover, the organizations will have to take permit from the
regulatory before proceeding with form of emission, which may consist of factors such as green
house gas emission, and discharge of produced water in to marine environment. This shows that
technological advancement have reduced the production of harmful gases in to the environment.
However, there has been a steady, increase in the production and demand of oil and natural gas,
due to the advancement of technology and improvement in the disposable income of the overall
population in the global context.
Thus, the study shows that the sustainable consumption is required in order to reduce the
discharge and emission of harmful materials in to the atmosphere. This will consist of the
reduction in global consumption of oil and natural gas as the industry is resource dependent.
Thus, the availability of oil will be reduced after few decades and thus, alternative means will
have to be invented if they consumption has to be reduced. On the other hand, it is seen form the
global trends that there has been significant decrease in some of the countries, there are countries
where the emission and discharge is quite high. Moreover, there have been significant efforts
from some of the companies to reduce the emission and discharge. There are different companies
such as Chevron wherein they have found a proper way or technique as this will help in founding
a proper way as this will properly as well as successfully tackle different daily energy activities.
The particular company is trying to able to focus on the different attention on employees as this
will help in minimizing the different probability of detrimental risks. The company is further
prepared as this will help in analyzing the different risks and solve such with proper
implementation of different strategies. There are different companies who adopt different

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approaches of analysis, as this will help in adopting a systematic environmental analysis, as this
will help in establishing proper standards as well.
The human error is a factor, which is the reason various hazardous events, so awareness,
and proper monitoring of the processes of the organizations is essential. These can only be
reduced by creating more awareness among the people and creating a sustainable environment.

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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.0 Conclusion
The gas and oil industry accounts for a major portion of the energy generation of the
entire world. However the industry still faces several backlashes regarding the environmental
issues that are related with the offshore operations, even though the basic fact remains same that
without these energies, cars would stop running and light may go out. One of the major
environmental risks that are associated with the oil and gas industry is the habitat depletion,
degradation and fragmentation. The disturbance of lands, erosion or loss of the vegetations can
be very dangerous for the existing environment. With the atmospheric emission, many pollutants
get absorbed in the environment which produces a large amount of greenhouse gas and includes
more noise and dust in the local air. Habitat fragmentation also tends to scare the natural
landscape. The offshore operations in the gas and oil industry also includes drilling and cutting
of the mud which leads to a huge flaring and venting of gas and eventually leads to a number of
natural risks and hazards. These actions may also lead to water or land contamination and
atmospheric emissions increases at the same time. More pollutants such as NOX, PM10, CO2,
VOC, SOX, CO etc multiply in the environment. More volatile or hazardous gasses emit which
eventually leads to the change of climate. These factors enhance the chances of toxic spillages
and release more contaminated water. It may also put more pressure on the usual resources,
therefore more habitat may get lost in the long run. The temperature of the weather may increase
along with the sea level, therefore extreme weather can occur. Altogether these factors increase

44DISSERTATION
the regular environmental burden as the industry adapts more innovative and challenging yet less
known technologies. Creating more pipelines can also enhance the chances of loss of habitat
along with land disturbance as using more advanced technologies can open up to lands that were
inaccessible in the past for further development and agriculture, therefore the chances of loss of
habitat grows. Exchange of tankers both on sea and road ways can also increase the seismic and
vehicles can enhance the chances of spillages of solid and liquid wastages.
Other than these, the marine and coastal ecology is interrupted with the offshore activities
of gas and oil industry to a great extent. The negative impact on the marine biodiversity and
corals from the operations taken place in coastal areas and spills from the tankers, especially in
Arctic can hamper the clean atmosphere. As there are finite numbers of fuel and fossil resources,
there is a long term influence due to the depletion of ozone and the emission of green house
gases for global warming. In the long run, the changes in the climate can also impact the safety
and health risks of major leaks, explosions and spills. There can also be an irreversible or
destructive impact on the social or critical habitat which includes marine and coastal ecology,
rainforests and wetlands.
Therefore the organizations in the oil and gas industry have already taken effective
measures for enhancing the sustainability developments and decreasing the possible risk factors.
There can also be some more measures for decreasing the risk factors that are discussed below.
5.1 Recommendation
Controlling the possible gas emissions can minimize the chances of loss of habitat or change of
the existing climate. The possible recommendations for this purpose are:

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 In order to minimize the water and energy consumption, the offshore operations of the
gas and oil industry should be optimized and processed. For managing the potential
emissions, the equipments should be maintained; silencers should also be utilized for
controlling the vibration and noise. Other than that, there should also be a proper
vibration and noise management plan for all the organizations in the industry with a
specific parameter. The organizations should also have a management plan for
maintaining the air quality for managing and monitoring the air quality. There should also
usage of non-dynamite based explosives or may be thumper trucks so that the emissions
can be managed properly. The organizations should also utilize the best obtainable
technologies for involving less cost.
 In order to control the venting and managing the pressurized gas and oil from the
borehole, the organizations should also have a spill prevention and emergency
preparedness plan.
 The water wastages should be managed as well in order to secure the sustainable water
contribution, reuse the waste water and recycling. The extraction chemicals should be
used in a more secured way, so that there is less impact of the extraction chemicals on the
environment.
 The organizations should also have a marine management plan, especially when the
offshore drilling is involved.
 The impacts on the surrounding climate should be checked and assessed for improving
the situation. Several means should be adapted so that there are regular developments.

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 Proper and suitable vessels for transportation should be utilized fir unloading and loading
the procedures. The organizations should adapt this, even if the cost raises for securing
less impact on the environment.
 There should also be regular implementation of the tank management plan for
maintaining the regular equipments and testing the integrity.
 There should also be a suitable plan for rehabilitation of the habitats. The native seeds
should be collected for sewing directly and the propagation of the native seedlings should
be utilized for rehabilitation purpose.
 The introduced species should be treated within the rehabilitation blocks so that the long
term invasion of the development of the rehabilitation can be prevented.
 The spill prevention plan should be maintained. The leaks in the transportation vessels
should be checked on a regular basis. The predictive maintenance should also be
remedied. The water disposal system should be maintained as well.

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6.0 Reflection
The project provided me valuable experience both on the research topic and the process
itself. However, I encountered a number of obstacles in the process right from the beginning. The
first one I encountered while formulating the research questions and objective. The topic chosen
for the dissertation has vast opportunity to work with and limiting the research in the particular
field of strategic risk management environmental impact of the offshore oil and gas companies
required a great deal of effort. I finally settled for the identification of the strategies incorporated
by various offshore oil and gas companies and the loopholes in the strategies that has adverse
impact on the environment. This helped me to recommend some modifications that are possible
to bring for improving the situation.
Later I found difficulties in identifying valid and related existing research for the
literature review part. I choose to incorporate only the peer reviewed journal articles and the
business reports to ensure the reliability of the data. This section of the dissertation further
helped me enriching my knowledge on existing situation in the industry. A significant number of
the organisations operating in the industry fail to ensure the environmental well-being in the
process of extraction and processing. This is causing a massive impact on the environment by
producing greenhouse gases and polluting the ocean bed and threatening a large number of
marine lives. However, I found a considerable gap in the literature that provided me the
opportunity to direct research in identification of the gap in the risk management strategies
implemented in the organisation and recommend efficient ways of ensuring success.
The next step was the identification of the research methodologies necessary for this
particular research. I identified the efficiency of the thematic research for this particular paper as

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I decided to conduct the research basing on the secondary data available in the market.
Secondary research was selected due to the inaccessibility for collecting the primary data. The
partial attribute can also be given to the limited resources I had for completion of the
dissertation. The thematic analysis helped me in identifying the patter in the data. The data that I
came up with represents the increased number of oil and gas companies in the recent decades.
This led the global government to restructure their regulations over the emission control for these
companies. The companies now have to provide a emission report to the government ensuring
safe operations. However, there is considerable gap in the strategies due to the high quantity
production by the organisations. This is leading to a constant increase in the emission level
affecting both the marine environment and the atmosphere. Hence, I could recommend an
innovation in the technology used by these organisations to better regulate the impact brought
upon the environment. I could further recommend implementing new risk management strategies
restricting the limits of production for ensuring the environmental safety.
This dissertation further leaves opportunity for conducting research on the methods of
improving the environmental condition by implementing purification process. The course further
taught me the process of conducting research, which I will be using in the future researches and
also in non-academic field as I now enriched my knowledge of how to formulate objectives,
search through existing data and research methodologies.

49DISSERTATION
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