Environmental Health Risk Assessment

This document provides an in-depth analysis of the environmental health risk assessment associated with poor housing and overcrowding in Melbourne's inner-city apartments. It discusses the major hazards, such as air pollution, infection risk, and fire risk, and their corresponding health effects. The document also highlights the need for effective risk management strategies to mitigate these hazards.

Running head: ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 1
Environmental Health Risk Assessment
Students Name
Institutional Affiliation

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 2
Table of Contents
Executive summary...........................................................................................................3
Introduction........................................................................................................................4
Issue Identification.........................................................................................................4
Hazard and Exposure Assessment................................................................................6
Risk characterization...................................................................................................10
Risk management plan................................................................................................11
Conclusion........................................................................................................................13
References.........................................................................................................................14
Appendix...........................................................................................................................17

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 3
Executive summary
Poor housing and overcrowding are associated with adverse health conditions among the
people living in Melbourne's inner-city apartments. The major hazards associated with poor
housing and overcrowding in the area include Air pollution, Infection risk and Fire risk. The
health effects associated with these hazards include lung and respiratory illnesses, certain types
of cancer, tuberculosis, cholera, typhoid and other serious illness. Air pollution has led to the
increase in toxic gases such as nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, particulate matter and
hydrocarbons due to increase in cars and other human activities. The infection risk has led to the
increase in the susceptible to infectious diseases due to poor ventilation and the presence of
infectious diseases as a result of overcrowding. Overcrowding and poor living conditions has led
to the increase in the fire risk as it is difficult to control fire outbreaks in such conditions. There
is also lack of important fire strategies in the area leading to increased fire risk. To control the air
pollution, infection risk and fire risk, the city of Melbourne, needs to ensure that there is reduced
overcrowding by monitoring the number of people living per apartment.

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Introduction
Housing is a major determinant of health. Poor housing and overcrowding have been a
significant public health issue in recent years. Poor housing and overcrowding are associated
with adverse health conditions among the people living in Melbourne's inner-city apartments.
The major hazards associated with poor housing and overcrowding in the area include Air
pollution, Infection risk and Fire risk (Clay, 2016). The health risks associated with these hazards
include lung and respiratory illnesses, certain types of cancer, tuberculosis, cholera, typhoid and
other serious illness. The risks of the hazards are high meaning that they are more likely to occur
with severe effects on the people (Giles-Corti, Ryan & Foster, 2012). Although many
interventions have been put to help prevent hazards, I believe much more needs to be done.
Issue Identification
The major hazards associated with overcrowding and poor living conditions in
Melbourne’s inner city apartments include air pollution, fire risk and infection risk (Clay, 2016).
Air pollution is a major issue in many countries and has more severe effects especially where the
living conditions are poor and where a population is overcrowded (How air pollution is
destroying our health, n.d.). The major sources of air pollution in Melbourne’s inner-city
apartments include automobiles, fuel burning in the houses, waste mismanagement and animal
waste (How air pollution is destroying our health, n.d.).
The increase in toxic gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and
particulate matter has been attributed to the increase in automobiles in the area (How air
pollution is destroying our health, n.d.). As Melbourne's inner-city becomes overcrowded and
the living conditions become poor, the waste management systems in the area become
overloaded and hence leading to leakages of very toxic gases. Poor ventilation in the apartments

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 5
also makes it difficult for the smoke produced through fuel burning to escape leading to
increased concentration of particulate matter and carbon dioxide (How air pollution is destroying
our health, n.d.).Indoor air pollution also arises from activities such as cigarette smoking, stoves
and heaters with no flues, molds, chemical odours from cleaners, glues, paint and solvents,
animal fur and faulty fuel-burning appliances and gas heaters (How air pollution is destroying
our health, n.d.).
The second most important health hazard associated with overcrowding and poor living
conditions in Melbourne's inner-city is infection risk. The risk of being infected by infectious
diseases is very high in the area (Clay, 2016). The housing conditions have a significant
influence on health and wellbeing and hence overcrowding, and poor housing conditions result in
increased susceptibility to infectious diseases (Victorian Department of Environment, Land,
Water and Planning, 2016). One of the leading causes is inadequate and poor ventilation and the
presence of infectious agents. An increase in the headcount in an area leads to an increase in the
probability of the transmission of infectious diseases (Dow, 2015). This is because as the
headcount increases, the ventilation and air circulation becomes poor. This then makes it hard for
fresh air to move in while the infectious agents move out. As a result, people become more
susceptible to the infectious agent. This explains why the people living in Melbourne's inner city
have a high infectious risk (Victorian Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning,
2016).
The third most important health hazard associated with overcrowding and poor living
conditions in Melbourne's inner city is a Fire risk (Clay, 2016). The fire risk has a direct
association with the quality of the housing. A highly overcrowded area increases fire risk. This
is because, once there is a fire outbreak, there will be panic among the people making it difficult

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 6
for them to run for safety. Consequently, rescue operations may not be successful since it will be
more challenging to organise people to help them escape (Clay, 2016). As a result, there will be
more deaths and extreme loss of property. The fact that poor living conditions in the houses
means that they are poorly ventilated can result to loss of lives and severe health effects during a
fire outbreak as the people may inhale excess smoke to their lungs (Clay, 2016).
The fire risk among the people living in the apartments is high as they lack a central
heating system and they often use portal heating systems (Clay, 2016). The portal heating
systems can easily result in a fire if placed near combustible material. In addition, if the device
happens to be electrical, then any such devices plugged into an overloaded electrical outlet or left
unattended can be dangerous (Clay, 2016). Overcrowded and poor living conditions in the area
also can also cause fire risk as they lack proper fire safety measures in place. For instance, they
lack smoke and fire alarms that can help detect fire and hence controlling it before it results in
huge damages (Clay, 2017). They also lack fire prevention measures such as fire safety plans
that should be communicated to the people to ensure that they know more about the potential
triggers of fires and how they can be controlled. As a result, once the fire occurs, the people
living in the apartment fail to know how to evacuate and put off the fire (Clay, 2017).
Hazard and Exposure Assessment
According to Giles-Corti et al., (2012), air pollution, Fire risk and Infection risk have a
significant health effect on the health of the people living in Melbourne’s inner city Air pollution
from automobiles has adverse health effects on their health. For instance, the particulate matter
produced from the automobiles is associated with high mortality among the people. It results in
the irritation of the lungs which then leads to the high permeability of the lung tissue (How air
pollution is destroying our health, n.d.). Particulate matter also leads to worsening of the present

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 7
lung conditions. Secondly, the presence of ozone in the air the people living in the area breathe
leads to an increase in lung diseases, decreased lung functions, breathing problems and asthma. It
also leads to the irritation of the eyes, nose, ears and throat and hence making people cough
(How air pollution is destroying our health, n.d).
Thirdly, nitrogen oxide produced from the automobiles results to the inflammation of the
lungs, decreased immunity to lung infections, coughing, wheezing, bronchitis and flu (How air
pollution is destroying our health, n.d.). Nitrogen oxide also results in intense and more frequent
asthma attacks among the people suffering from asthma (How air pollution is destroying our
health, n.d.). Lastly, sulfur oxide leads to irritation of the throat, nose and the airways and hence
leading to wheezing, coughing and shortness of breath (How air pollution is destroying our
health, n.d.). The health effects of sulfur are rapid and most of the people experience severe
symptoms after 10 to 15 minutes of exposure. Sulfur dioxide also leads to breathing problems
and increased asthma attacks among people with asthma (Western Australian Department of
Health, 2006).
Indoor air pollution has both short and long term effects among the people living in
Melbourne’s inner city. For instance activities such as cigarette smoking can increase the risk of
cancer both active and passive smokers (How air pollution is destroying our health, n.d.). The
burning of fossil fuels can result in the production of carbon monoxide which can cause
immediate death. The common symptoms of indoor air pollution include fatigue, dizziness,
headaches, coughing, watery eyes, sneezing and upper respiratory congestion (How air pollution
is destroying our health, n.d.). The respiratory health effects of indoor air pollution include
Dyspnea, Rhinitis and nasal congestion, wheezing, Pharyngitis, Epistaxis and severe lung
disease. Other severe health effects that may arise from indoor air pollution include rashes,

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 8
hearing loss, Nausea, anorexia, vomiting, Myalgia, Tachycardia, lethargy, malaise and fatigue
and conjunctival irritation (How air pollution is destroying our health, n.d.).
The hazards that cause air pollution have two mechanisms through which they impact
health. Most of the hazards enter the body through breathing while only a few enter the body
through skin absorption (Who is at risk from air pollution, 2019). The mechanism of which a
pollutant enters the body depends on the nature of the pollutant. Once the air pollutants are
inhaled through the nose, they spread to the lungs and other body parts and hence causing
adverse effects (Who is at risk from air pollution, 2019). Although everyone can be affected by
air pollutants if exposed for an extended period, the children, the pregnant women and their
unborn babies, older adults are more susceptible. This is because they have low immunity.
People with asthma, lung disease and cardiovascular illnesses are most likely affected (Who is at
risk from air pollution, 2019). The people from low socioeconomic status are the most affected
due to the fact they lack enough income to protect themselves from the impact of air pollution.
They also lack income timely and quality healthcare services once the symptoms manifest (Who
is at risk from air pollution, 2019).
Fire risk has a massive effect on the health of a person as well as his or her financial
status. Fire can impact the health of a person through burning. Once a person comes into contact
with fire, it can cause burning on the skin, damage to internal body organs as well as the death of
a person depending on the length of contact (Krieger & Higgins, 2014). Contact with fire can
also lead to burning of the eyes. Secondly, fire can impact the health of a person through the
inhalation of smoke with its fine particles which can penetrate the lungs leading to severe lung
and heart disorders (Krieger & Higgins, 2014).

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 9
The fire risk varies among various population groups. The people that are more
susceptible to fire risks include the young children, older adults, pregnant women, diabetic
people and those with heart and lung diseases (Krieger & Higgins, 2014). People living in poor
living conditions and overcrowded places also have a high fire risk (Krieger & Higgins, 2014).
This is because the chances of escaping from the fire are limited as well as the lack of fire
protection systems. The mechanisms through which fire impacts the health of a person is through
burning and inhalation of smoke (Clay, 2016).
Infection risk has a significant effect on the health of a person by predisposing them to
infectious diseases. The main diseases and infections associated with overcrowded areas include
tuberculosis, cholera, meningitis, scabies, pneumonia, skin and lung infections and gastric
problems (Christie & Feigin, 2019). The mechanism through which these infections impact the
health of a person includes ingestion and inhalation (World Health Organization, Risk factors of
communicable diseases, 2017). The bacteria, viruses and other disease-causing organisms enter
the body through consuming contaminated foods, living in unclean environments and using dirty
washrooms. For instance, the disease-causing organisms such as in the case of cholera can be
ingested through contaminated foods (World Health Organization, Risk factors of communicable
diseases, 2017). The disease-causing organism as in the case of tuberculosis can be inhaled
especially where people are overcrowded. Once the bacteria and viruses are in the body, they
multiply rapidly and hence infecting many organs. Children, older adults, people from low
socioeconomic status and people with low immunity have a high infection risk (World Health
Organization, Risk factors of communicable diseases, 2017).

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Risk characterization
Air pollution, infection risk and fire risk are serious health hazards for this population.
Their likelihood of occurrence is high while their impacts have a high level of severity. In the
case of infection risk, the risk of infections alongside other environmental factors is high
(Environmental Health Standing Committee, 2012). The likelihood is greater than 75% meaning
that it is more certain to occur at the population level. The severity of infection risk is high
leading to increased morbidity and mortality at the population level. This has a significant impact
on the health of the people (Environmental Health Standing Committee, 2012).
The severity of the diseases is also high especially among the elderly, children and those
with weak immunity. The fact that poor conditions are associated with poor sanitary conditions
and lack of fresh air means that the people are at a higher risk of acquiring infectious diseases
(Reducing the negative impacts of crowding Archives, n.d.). Due to the poor living conditions
and overcrowding of Melbourne's inner-city, the accumulation and developments of pathogens
are more likely. Once an infection develops in a person, it becomes challenging to control it
leading to deaths and an increased spread of disease (Reducing the negative impacts of crowding
Archives, n.d.). Lack of proper treatment and control of these infections is attributed to
inadequate healthcare. Infection control risks also include poor hygiene practices, poor
unsanitary conditions and lack of education on how to prevent oneself from diseases (Reducing
the negative impacts of crowding Archives, n.d.).
In the case of Air pollution, the likelihood of the occurrence of health effects of air
pollution is almost certain with a chance of occurrence greater than 75% at the population level
(Risk Assessment For Toxic Pollutants, n.d.). This means that air pollution may occur in most
circumstances. This is because of the increased number of automobiles in the area as well as

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 11
increased indoor activities. This is also because of the lack of effective interventions to stop air
pollution activities (Risk Assessment for Toxic Pollutants, n.d.). The severity of the health
effects at the population level is high especially among the children, elderly and those with a low
immunity system (Environmental Health Standing Committee, 2012). The severity is also high
among people with lung disease, asthma and cardiovascular diseases. The high severity is
associated with increased morbidity and mortality among the people. The risk of air pollution is
catastrophic, at 20 to 25 (Environmental Health Standing Committee, 2012).
In relation to the fire risk, the risk of fire is high while the likelihood of the risk is at 50 to
74% which means that it is more likely to occur (Risk Assessment for Toxic Pollutants, n.d.).
The severity of the health impacts is high meaning that they cause adverse health impacts on the
people leading to increased mortality and mortality cases (Environmental Health Standing
Committee, 2012). The fire risk is high due to the fact the population lacks enough measures to
prevent the fires from occurring. The risk is also high because overcrowded places lack adequate
ventilations, fire escape systems and alarm systems (Cunningham & Fox, 2019).
Risk management plan
To control the air pollution infection risk and fire risk, the city of Melbourne, needs to
ensure that there is reduced overcrowding by monitoring the number of people living per
apartment (Lower Income Countries | Hygiene | Healthy Water | CDC, n.d.). The city of
Melbourne should also ensure that the people living in Melbourne are well educated on the
dangers of overcrowding (Lower Income Countries | Hygiene | Healthy Water | CDC, n.d.). The
infection risk can be managed through the proper and adequate treatment of water to ensure that
there are no pathogens in the water. Secondly, in case there is a leakage in the sewer system, they
should be quickly fixed. Thirdly, the manholes should remain close, and there should be proper

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 12
drainage of rainwater. Lastly, people should be educated on how to practice good hygiene and
how to prevent the spread of diseases (Lower Income Countries | Hygiene | Healthy Water |
CDC, n.d.).
The city of Melbourne can reduce fire risk through the implementation of fire prevention
policies. This includes ensuring that there are fire alarms, escape routes, firefighting equipment
and emergency lighting Apartment Fire Safety and Prevention Tips, 2017). The people should
also be well educated on how to prevent fires and how to manage them too Apartment Fire
Safety and Prevention Tips, 2017). There should also be fire drills to help the people to know
where to run to and what to do in case there is a fire outbreak (Apartment Fire Safety and
Prevention Tips, 2017).
The local authority can reduce the air pollution risk through the reduction of the emission
from automobiles. This can be achieved by encouraging people to use other means of transport
such as cycling and walking (Queensland, 2013). This can also be achieved by using safer fuels.
Secondly, air pollution can be reduced through proper local traffic management, encouraging the
planting of trees and encouraging people to use clean and sustainable methods of energy
(Queensland, 2013). Lastly, the landlords should be encouraged to build houses with proper
ventilation to reduce indoor air pollution (Giles-Corti et al., 2012). My findings can be
communicated to both the public and stakeholders through publication in the newsletters and the
dailies. Presentations can also be made to the public.

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 13
Conclusion
In conclusion, the infection, fire and air pollution risks have a huge effect on the health of
the people living in Melbourne's inner-city apartments. The health effects caused by these risks
include respiratory illnesses, infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, injuries and many other
effects. The measures can be put into place to help curb the infection risk include educating the
people on the benefits of practising good hygiene and proper treatment of water. Secondly, fire
risks can be reduced by putting into place fire safety measures. Thirdly, air pollution can be
reduced by encouraging people to use alternative means of transport and health education.

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 14
References
Apartment Fire Safety and Prevention Tips. (2017, June 08). Retrieved from
https://www.thehartford.com/about-us/junior-fire-marshal/apartment-fire-safety
Christie, A. B., & Feigin, R. D. (2019, April 11). Infectious disease. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/science/infectious-disease/Population-density
Clay, C. (2016). High-rise apartments are bad to live in and bad for society, says respected
architect, The Age, 29 August http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/highrise-apartments-
are-bad-to-live-in-and-bad-for-society-says-respected-architect-20160828-gr39nf.html
Clay, C. (2017). 'Someone will be burnt to death': Senate demands ban on flammable cladding,
The Age, 7 September, http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/someone-will-be-burnt-to-
death-senate-demands-ban-on-flammable-cladding-20170906-gyc7oi.html
Cunningham, M., & Fox Koob, S. (2019). Ten beds found crammed inside some apartments in
fire-ravaged tower, The Age, 5 February
https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/residents-of-spencer-street-tower-that-
caught-fire-will-be-locked-out-for-days-20190205-p50vtf.html
Dow, A. (2015). Slum squeeze: overseas students taking turns to sleep in overcrowded
Melbourne high rises, The Age, 21 May, http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/slum-
squeeze-overseas-students-taking-turns-to-sleep-in-overcrowded-melbourne-high-rises-
20150519-gh5hzs.html
Environmental Health Standing Committee. (2012). Risky business – a resource to help local
governments manage environmental health risks, Australian Health Protection Principal
Committee, Canberra,

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 15
http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/A12B57E41EC9F326CA
257BF0001F9E7D/$File/Risky-Business.pdf
Giles-Corti, B., Ryan, K., & Foster, S. (2012). Increasing density in Australia: Maximising the
benefits and minimising the harm. Available at
https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/images/uploads/publications/Increasing-density-in-
Australia-Evidence-Review-2012-trevor.pdf
How air pollution is destroying our health. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.who.int/air-
pollution/news-and-events/how-air-pollution-is-destroying-our-health
Krieger, J., & Higgins, D. L. (2014, May). Housing and health: Time again for public health
action. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1447157/
Lower Income Countries | Hygiene | Healthy Water | CDC. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/hygiene/ldc/index.html
Queensland;, C. O. (2013, August 29). Controlling air pollution | Air pollution. Retrieved from
https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/pollution/monitoring/air/air-pollution/controlling
Reducing the negative impacts of crowding Archives. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.housingforhealth.com/the-guide/health-housing/reducing-the-negative-
impacts-of-crowding/
Risk Assessment For Toxic Pollutants. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www3.epa.gov/airtoxics/3_90_024.html

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 16
Victorian Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (2016). Better Apartment
Design Standards, available at
https://www.planning.vic.gov.au/policy-and-strategy/planning-reform/better-apartments
Western Australian Department of Health (2006). Health risk assessment in Western Australia,
available at http://ww2.health.wa.gov.au/~/media/Files/Corporate/general
%20documents/Environmental%20health/Health%20risk%20assesment/Health-Risk-
Assessment.pdf
Who is at risk from air pollution? (2019, February 28). Retrieved from https://www.pca.state.
mn.us/air/who-risk-air-pollution
World Health Organization, Risk factors of communicable diseases. (2017, July 12). Retrieved
from http://searo.who.int/entity/health_situation_trends/data/chi/underseight-vs-lri/en/

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 17
Appendix
An example of an overcrowded room in Melbourne
(Cunningham, M., & Fox Koob, 2019)

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 18
Effect of air pollution on Health
(Risk Assessment For Toxic Pollutants, n.d.).