Environmental Impacts and Sustainability in Construction: A Report

This report delves into the environmental impacts and sustainability of construction activities, addressing various aspects from site layout and material handling to the advantages of cross-laminated timber (CLT). It begins with a detailed site layout plan, emphasizing safety in material storage and disposal, along with a comprehensive overview of required materials, their hazards, and risk reduction measures. The report then pivots to sustainability, analyzing the benefits and drawbacks of CLT, comparing it to traditional materials, and evaluating material choices like concrete and steel, including their pros and cons, and explores alternative materials. The report also highlights relevant regulations and approved codes of practice (ACOPS) applicable to foundation building, ensuring a holistic understanding of sustainable construction practices. The report provides a comprehensive guide for construction professionals and students, promoting environmentally responsible building practices.

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 1
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND SUSTAINABILITY OF CONSTRUCTION
ACTIVITIES
Name
Course
Professor
University
City/state
Date

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 2
Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities
Task 1: Safe storage and disposal of materials and equipment
a) Site layout sketch
Safety is very essential when executing a construction (Kanchana, et al., 2015) and one of the
most essential safety considerations on a site is to develop a site layout (Anumba & Bishop,
2011). The main aim of this plan is to identify storage areas for all materials, plant and
equipment to be used on site. This reduces significantly a wide range of potential hazards that
would put the safety of workers on site at risk (Sanad, et al., 2009). Site layout also affects space
utilization and productivity on site (Sadeghpour & Andayesh, 2015). Figure 1 below is the site
layout plan of the building.
Figure 1: Sketch of site layout

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 3
b) Necessary materials
Materials needed during demolition and preparation of the site include: personal protective
equipment (PPE), elevated work platforms, powered equipment, explosives (optional), wrecking
ball, hammers, bulldozer, excavator, crane, etc. Handling of demolition waste is also very
important in this project. All demolition wastes would be sorted so as to identify those to be
recycled, reused or disposed. Any hazardous materials would be collected by specialists and
stored in containers by following federal, state or local waste handling or disposal regulations.
After sorting, the demolition waste would be categorized by type of materials and stored in
suitable labelled containers. Other wastes would be placed in temporary storage areas waiting for
removal from the site to their disposal destinations. After that, the wastes would be loaded in
trucks and transported to their final destinations, such as landfills or recycling facilities, for
disposal. Wastes that can be reused as they are would also be stored in appropriate areas on site
for use at later stages of the construction process.
Other materials that would be required during initial and later stages of the construction
include: steel, concrete, timber, masonry, plasterboards, mortar, glass, PVC, paint, varnish,
terrazzo, tiles, gypsum, adhesives, sealants, insulating materials, etc. Numerous precautions
should be considered when handling and using these materials. The precautions include the
following: materials not in use should always be kept in areas specified in the site layout; all
workers on site should be trained on how to use the materials; any hazardous material found on
site should be handled by specialists; workers should be aware of safety and health risks posed
by different materials and strategies of preventing or minimizing them; it should be mandatory
for all workers on site to wear appropriate PPE at all times; all storage containers must be
labeled; every material should be handled and stored by following the recommendations or

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 4
instructions of the manufacturer or supplier; materials stored by stacking should not exceed
recommended height by the manufacturer; any material should only leave the store with
authority from the storekeeper; and there should be supervisors to ensure that workers follow the
stipulated safe work practices.
c) Construction materials, their hazards and risk reduction measures
The hazards posed and risk reduction measures for various construction materials are
summarized in Table 1 below
Table 1: Summary of construction materials, their hazards and risk reduction measures
Construction material Hazards Risk reduction measures
Concrete  Irritation of eyes, upper
respiratory tract, throat and
skin
 Lung cancer and silicosis
 Cracking or thickening of
skin
 Wear appropriate PPE
including respirator
 Avoid eating or drinking in
areas with cement dust
 Wash off cement dust using
water and soap (Occupational
Safety and Health
Administration, (n.d.)).
Stones  Stone dust can cause
respiratory tract infections
such as lung cancer and
silicosis (Arjun, (n.d.)).
 Ensure that workers wear
appropriate PPE
 Reduce dust by watering the
stones
 Select good quality stones
with less dust
Fiberglass  Eye irritation
 Skin irritation
 Respiratory tract infections
 Bronchitis
 Asthma
 Ensure that cutting, trimming
and chopping activities are
done in confined areas that
are well ventilated.
 Ensure that all workers wear
appropriate PPE
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)  Causes vision failure, cancer,
liver dysfunction, birth
defects, bronchitis and
asthma
 Causes dysfunction of
thyroid, pancreas, adrenal and
reproductive glands
 Respiratory tract damage
 Wear appropriate PPE
 Use alternative materials

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 5
(Gromicko, (n.d.)).
Pipes, paints, roofing
materials, tanks, electrical
conduits and cornices
 Contain lead that can cause
abdominal pain, memory
loss, tiredness, nausea,
depression and constipation
(Centers for Diseas Control
and Prevention, 2018).
 Wear appropriate PPE
 Observe appropriate work
practices (Musick, 2017).
 Use lead-free alternatives
 Train workers on how to
prevent lead exposure
(Ontario Ministry of Labour,
2011).
Risk assessment on use of materials can be very helpful in ensuring a safe workplace. For
example, risk assessment of concrete can be done by determining the content of silica and
limestone present in concrete, identifying the health hazards of these compounds, classifying the
people that may be harmed and how they will be harmed by the use of concrete, evaluating risks
associated with the material and the risk level to each group of potential victims; establishing
precautions or risk control measures; creating awareness among potential victims; and following
up to ensure that the recommended precautionary measures are implemented.
d) Regulations and ACOPS applicable to foundation building
One of the activities of foundation building is concreting. This activity involves preparing,
pouring and curing concrete in the excavated trenches that have reinforcement installed in them.
Some of the regulations and ACOPS (approved code of practice) that would apply to concrete
pouring include the following: the formwork should be erected in the trenches by following
engineer’s instructions; reinforcement selected should meet design specifications in the contract
documents; the reinforcement should be fixed in accordance with the specifications in the
foundation design drawings; appropriate concrete mix design should be used to produce concrete
that meets the desired strength; concrete ingredients used should be selected by following the
pre-determined concrete design criteria; concrete should be vibrated adequately and levelled
properly during placement; the concrete should be cured for not less than 7 consecutive days; the
production, pouring and curing of concrete should be done under supervision of qualified

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 6
personnel; all workers involved in concrete works should always wear appropriate PPE; and all
activities should be done by following safe work practices.
Task 2: Sustainability
The chosen material for analysis is cross laminated timber (CLT)
i) Advantages of CLT
Advantages of CLT include the following:
Environmentally friendly: CLT has a very small carbon footprint throughout its lifecycle,
including production, transportation, construction and use. The material also renewable and
grows naturally. It has minimal air pollution, water pollution and embodied energy (Malmquist,
2017).
Durability: CLT is highly durable as long as it is maintained properly. This means that
once the building is complete, it will be used for several years without cutting down more trees
for repairs, which helps in protecting the environment.
Stability and strength: the cross lamination of CLT provides it with superior shear
strength performance and high dimensional stability with very low weight to strength ratio.
Thermal performance: CLT is a poor conductor of heat hence requires minimal or no
insulation. The material does not allow air infiltration thus making it to have better energy
efficiency.
Speed of construction: CLT elements are usually prefabricated offsite and transported to
the site for assembling (Risen, 2014). This minimizes waste and saves both construction time and
money.

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 7
Cost saving: the whole life cost of CLT is lower than that of other building materials such
as steel and concrete. This is because CLT is durable, requires less maintenance, has low
embodied energy, and increases construction time. All these reduces lifecycle costs of CLT.
Reduced waste: the fact that CLT elements are prefabricated offsite means minimal
wastage. This is very essential in protecting the environment.
Recyclable: CLT can be recycled and reused when it reaches its useful life. This reduces
the need to extract more natural resources (trees) and the associated environmental impacts of
timber production.
ii) Disadvantages of CLT
The main disadvantage of CLT is that its procurement cost is relatively higher than that of
steel or concrete. But its lifecycle costs are lower. In terms of environment and sustainability,
there is no apparent disadvantage of CLT.
iii) Comparison with traditional materials
Some of the materials that may have been used for this kind of building 50 years ago include:
traditional timber, lime, straw clay, rammed earth, fly ash, adobe or limestone bricks, stones,
bamboo, slate tiles, straw bale, asphalt, bitumen and asbestos. On the other hand, materials that
can be used today in this structure are green concrete, fiberglass, steel, glue laminated timber,
concrete tiles, ceramic tiles, PVC, plasterboards, hollow blocks, hempcrete, grasscrete,
galvanized iron sheets, composites, nanomaterials, etc. The main difference is that today’s
materials are selected by considering several factors other than cost, such as sustainability,
environmental friendliness, ease of construction, etc. Therefore building materials used today

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 8
have low lifecycle costs, are durable, lightweight, saves construction time, flexible, stronger,
more sustainable, and environmentally friendlier.
Task 3: Materials choice
a) Pros and cons of concrete and steel
Some of the advantages and disadvantages of concrete and steel are as follows:
Advantages of concrete: has high compressive strength; relatively cheap due to readily
available ingredients; resistant to corrosion; highly durable; susceptible to few flaws; very low
maintenance costs; versatile hence can be molded into any shape; resistant to fire (Kodur, 2014);
can withstand harsh weather conditions; and it is easy to repair.
Disadvantages of concrete: low tensile strength (Ramaraj, 2016); its final strength
depends on the method of making, placing and curing the concrete; susceptible to shrinkage; low
strength-to-weight ratio; has low toughness, must be reinforced to prevent cracks; requires
formwork during placement that increases cost of construction; long curing time; susceptible to
efflorescence in presence of soluble salts; prone to creep development in case of sustained loads;
and requires expansion and construction joints to avoid cracks (Sharma, 2017).
Advantages of steel include: it is ductile hence does not fail abruptly; can be machined
easily; has high strength-to-weight ratio; it is lightweight; steel structures can be manufactured
offsite; it is flexible hence can be molded into different shapes; easily available; very durable;
can withstand numerous external pressures like earthquakes; easy to transport and install; high
construction speed; its strength can be improved at later time (after construction); it is recyclable
and reusable (sustainable); and it is efficient (Midwest Steel, (n.d.)).

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 9
Disadvantages of steel include: it is vulnerable to corrosion; it is susceptible to buckling;
has high maintenance costs; relatively costly; and has high expansion rate.
b) Alternative material
A material with a smaller environmental impact that can be used as an alternative to
concrete or steel for making columns and beams of the building is cross laminated timber (CLT).
CLT is an engineered wood that is strong, has high strength-to-weight ratio, resistant to rust, and
has superior thermal, seismic, fire and acoustic performance (Davids, et al., 2017). CLT is not
susceptible to fire like conventional timber because its properties have been improved to make it
more resistant to fire and high temperatures (Shrestha, et al., 2014). CLT is also lightweight and
easy to install thus reducing construction cost and time. Another important property of CLT is
that components can be prefabricated offsite to improve quality control, enable quick
construction, reduce wastage, and minimize costs. The CLT has crosswise and longitudinal
laminate that reduce shrinkage and swelling thus producing components that are warp-resistant
and dimensionally stable (Reynolds, et al., 2017). CLT is usually glued at high pressure making
it a rigid structural member suitable for making horizontal and vertical building frames such as
beams and columns (Barnes, 2014). However, CLT also has a few disadvantages including
vulnerability to moisture and mold (but can be prevented through appropriate treatment and use
of preservatives), high maintenance cost, and its structural soundness can decrease with time if it
is not maintained properly.
CLT is a more sustainable material than concrete or steel because the former is made up
of wood, which is a renewable resource. Additionally, production of CLT does not involve
burning of fossil fuels like it is the case for concrete or steel (Souza, 2018). Small amount of
resources, including energy and water, are used in production of CLT. CLT is also renewable

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 10
and has the lowest carbon footprint than any other building material, including concrete and
steel. Thus CLT has lower environmental impact than concrete and steel. Other potential
alternative materials are blocks, bricks and stones.
c) Applicable standards
There are different standards that would apply when using CLT as a structural component.
These standards give guidelines on production, designing, application and maintenance of
structural timber elements/components. The standards may be different between countries due to
varied environmental and seismic conditions that result to different building codes. Some of the
applicable standards include: BS 5268 – Structural use of timber, BS EN 14080 – Timber
structures, BS 14081 – Timber structures, BS EN 386 – Glue laminated timber, AS 1720 –
Timber structures, NZS 3603 – Timber structures, NDS – National design specification for wood
construction, CSA 086 – Engineering design in wood structures, AS/NZS 1080 – Timber
(methods of test), and AS/NZS 2878 – Timber strength classification, among others.
d) Testing procedure
The testing procedure to determine if the CLT would be able to support the building entails
the following: calculating the total load (dead and live loads) that the CLT component will
support; using applicable codes and standards to determine design specifications of the
component; using the pre-determined specifications to design a sample of the CLT component;
testing the sample using a suitable machine (such as universal testing machine) to determine
various properties of the sample; using the test results to determine appropriate property values
such as compressive strength, tensile strength, shear strength, flexural strength, bond strength,
etc.); and evaluating the results obtained to determine if they meet the minimum design
specifications or requirements. Some of the common tests that can be performed on CLT are

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 11
tension test (to determine tensile strength), compression test (to determine compressive strength)
and bending test (to determine bending strength). The general procedure of performing these
tests is: preparing the test sample; setting up the test machine; fitting the test sample into the
machine; starting the test by applying small increments of the load on the test sample; stopping
the machine when the sample fractures at maximum load; and using the recorded data to
calculate desired parameters.
e) Importance of standards
The standard ensures that results of a test conducted can be compared to other materials in
any part of the world by providing specifications that a timber component should have so as to
be able to perform a particular function and also the procedure that must be followed by
performing the test. For instance, the standard can provide specifications (such as geometrical
parameters) that a timber component should have so as to attain minimum values or limits of
different mechanical properties such as flexural strength, tensile strength, compressive strength,
bending stress and buckling stress. The standard also provides guidelines of ensuring good
workmanship for high quality timber components. This ensures that the members designed and
selected for a particular use meet the minimum performance requirements, including strength,
safety, durability, etc.
f) Impacts of sustainable considerations and practices
Use of sustainable considerations and practices when selecting materials can improve
environmental rating of a completed building in the following ways: minimizing heat loss/gain
from and/or into the building thus reducing energy consumption for heating, ventilation and air
conditioning (HVAC); maximizing daylighting thus reducing energy consumption for lighting;
maximizing natural ventilation thus reducing energy consumption for ventilation; using

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 12
automated building management systems thus reducing overall energy and water consumption in
the building; minimizing wastage of water and energy in the building; using recycled and
recyclable materials to minimize wastage and extraction of natural resources; using durable
materials thus reducing cost of operating and maintaining the building; ensuring that wastes
generated from the building are collected and recycled; and helping occupants understand their
role in making the building to be more sustainable.
g) Maximum column load
Equation 1 below (Euler column formula) is used for calculating maximum load that a column
can support
F= nπ ² EI
L ² ……………………………….……………….. (1)
Where F is the maximum column load; n is a factor of end conditions of the column; I is the
second moment of area; E is the Young’s modulus; and L is the free length of the column.
E = 35 x 109 N/m2, n = 4 (the column is fixed at each end), L = 4m
The second moment of area of a circular object is calculated using equation 2 below
I = π r 4
4 …………..………………….……………….. (2)
Diameter of column = 0.5m → radius, r = 0.25m
I = π x ( 0.25 m ) 4
4 =0.00307 m4
Using equation 1 to calculate maximum load

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 13
F= 4 x π2 x 35 x 109 N /m2 x 0.00307 m4
( 4 m ) 2 =2.65 x 108 N
Task 4: Human comfort requirements
a) Indoor environmental conditions
Some of the generally accepted indoor environmental conditions are provided in Table 2 below
Table 2: Generally accepted indoor environmental conditions
Indoor environmental condition Generally accepted values
Temperature 20°C – 26°C (Arifin & Denan, 2015)
Radiant temperature 19°C – 30°C
Relative humidity 30% - 50% (Vanvuren, 2018)
Ventilation 5l/s/person – 10l/s/person (Clark, 2013)
Illumination 500 flux to 1000 flux (Mount Lighting, (n.d.))
Reverberation 60dB – 80dB (Acoustic Bulletin, 2018)
b) Heat needed for constant indoor temperature
The rate at which heat needs to be generated so as to maintain indoor temperature at a particular
temperature is calculated using equation 3 below
H = A x U x ΔT …..……………………………………… (3)
Where H is the rate of heat generated; A is the surface area of the building element in m2; U is
the heat transfer of a surface in W/m2°C; and ΔT is difference between inside and outside
temperature in °C.
The dimensions of the building being built is 80m long, 20m wide and 20m high. Surface area of
different elements of the building is calculated as follows:
Surface area of outside wall on longest sides = (80m x 20m) x 2 = 3,200m2

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 14
Surface area of outside wall on shortest sides = (20m x 20m) x 2 = 800m2
Total surface area of outside wall = 3200 + 800 = 4,000m2
But windows make up 30% of outside wall area hence surface area of wall and windows is
determined as follows:
Total surface area of wall = 70
100 x 4,000 m2 =2,800 m2
Total surface area of windows = 30
100 x 4,000 m2 =1,200 m2
Area of floor = 80m x 20m = 1,600m2
Area of roof (flat roof) = 80m x 20m = 1,600m2
The rate of heat needed for the various elements is calculated as follows:
ΔT = 20°C – 0° = 20°C
Hwalls = 2,800m2 x 0.2W/m2°C x 20°C = 11.2kW
Hroof = 1,600m2 x 0.23W/m2°C x 20°C = 7.36kW
Hfloor = 1,600m2 x 0.23W/m2°C x 20°C = 7.36kW
Hwindows = 1,200m2 x 0.9W/m2°C x 20°C = 21.6kW
Total heat = Hwalls + Hroof + Hfloor + Hwindows
= 11.2kW + 7.36kW + 7.36kW + 21.6kW = 47.52kW
c) Heat loss
Volume of average fresh air needed per person = 8l/s = 0.008m3/s

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 15
Number of occupants = 150
Total volume of fresh air needed in the building = 0.008m3/s/person x 150 persons = 1.2m3/s
Difference between inside and outside temperature = 20°C – 0° = 20°C
Amount of heat lost is calculated using equation 4 below
H = ρ x V x ΔT …………………………………………………… (4)
Where H is the amount of heat lost from the building; ρ is the specific heat capacity of air; V is
the volume of fresh air needed in the building; and ΔT = temperature difference.
H = 1kJ/m3°C x 1.2m3/s x 20°C = 24kJ/s
1J/s = 1W; hence 24kJ/s = 24kW
d) Reverberation time
Reverberation time is calculated using equation 5 below
T = 0.161V
A ……………………………….…………………. (5)
Where T is the reverberation time in seconds; V is the total volume of the building; and A is the
total sound absorption of the building calculated by multiplying the sound absorption coefficient
of material of the building element by the surface area of that particular element.
Total volume of the building = 17m x 30m x 8m = 4,080m3
Area of walls on longest side = (30m x 8m) x 2 = 480m2
Area of walls on shortest side = (17m x 8m) x 2 = 272m2
Total area of outside walls = 480m2 + 272m2 = 752m2

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 16
Total surface area of acoustic timber wall = 70
100 x 752 m2=526.4 m2
Total surface area of glass wall = 30
100 x 752 m2=225.6 m2
Area of floor = 17m x 30m = 510m2
Area of ceiling = 17m x 30m = 510m2
Reverberation time for the different building elements is calculated as follows:
Tglass-wall = 0.161 x 4080
0.03 x 225.6 =97.06 s
Ttimber-wall = 0.161 x 4080
0.42 x 526.4 =2.97 s
Tfloor = 0.161 x 4080
0.25 x 510 =5.15 s
Tceiling = 0.161 x 4080
0.85 x 510 =1.52 s
Total reverberation time of the space = Tglass-wall + Ttimber-wall + Tfloor + Tceiling
= 97.06s + 2.97s + 5.15s + 1.52s = 106.7s
e) Maximum audience scenario
What would be expected to happen when the hall was packed to the maximum (200 people)
is to see a decrease in reverberation time. This is because an increase in people in the room
increases the surface area or objects to absorb sound. Since the volume of the hall remains the
same, an increase in number of people increases the surface area for sound absorption thus
causing the reverberation time to decrease.

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 17
f) Building design consideration
There are several factors that must be put into consideration when designing a building so as
to minimize its utilization of energy and other resources during different phases of its lifecycle.
Some of these factors include the following: location of the building, orientation of the building,
layout of rooms in the building, intended use of the building, size of the building, materials used
for different building elements, landscaping features, building envelope, type of roof, type and
sizes of windows, and source of resources such as water and energy.

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities 18
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