Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities
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Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities1 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND SUSTAINABILITY OF CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES Name Course Professor University City/state Date
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Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities2 Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities Task 1: Safe storage and disposal of materials and equipment a)Site layout sketch Safety is very essential when executing a construction(Kanchana, et al., 2015)and one of the most essential safety considerations on a site is to develop a site layout(Anumba & Bishop, 2011). The main aim of this plan is to identify storage areas for all materials, plant and equipment to be used on site.This reduces significantly a wide range of potential hazards that would put the safety of workers on site at risk(Sanad, et al., 2009).Site layout also affects space utilization and productivity on site(Sadeghpour & Andayesh, 2015).Figure 1 below is the site layout plan of the building. Figure 1: Sketch of site layout
Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities3 b)Necessary materials Materials needed during demolition and preparation of the site include: personal protective equipment (PPE), elevated work platforms, powered equipment, explosives (optional), wrecking ball, hammers, bulldozer, excavator, crane, etc. Handling of demolition waste is also very important in this project. All demolition wastes would be sorted so as to identify those to be recycled, reused or disposed. Any hazardous materials would be collected by specialists and stored in containers by following federal, state or local waste handling or disposal regulations. After sorting, the demolition waste would be categorized by type of materials and stored in suitable labelled containers. Other wastes would be placed in temporary storage areas waiting for removal from the site to their disposal destinations. After that, the wastes would be loaded in trucks and transported to their final destinations, such as landfills or recycling facilities, for disposal. Wastes that can be reused as they are would also be stored in appropriate areas on site for use at later stages of the construction process. Other materials that would be required during initial and later stages of the construction include: steel, concrete, timber, masonry, plasterboards, mortar, glass, PVC, paint, varnish, terrazzo, tiles, gypsum, adhesives, sealants, insulating materials, etc. Numerous precautions should be considered when handling and using these materials. The precautions include the following: materials not in use should always be kept in areas specified in the site layout; all workers on site should be trained on how to use the materials; any hazardous material found on site should be handled by specialists; workers should be aware of safety and health risks posed by different materials and strategies of preventing or minimizing them; it should be mandatory for all workers on site to wear appropriate PPE at all times; all storage containers must be labeled; every material should be handled and stored by following the recommendations or
Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities4 instructions of the manufacturer or supplier; materials stored by stacking should not exceed recommended height by the manufacturer; any material should only leave the store with authority from the storekeeper; and there should be supervisors to ensure that workers follow the stipulated safe work practices. c)Construction materials, their hazards and risk reduction measures The hazards posed and risk reduction measures for various construction materials are summarized in Table 1 below Table 1: Summary of construction materials, their hazards and risk reduction measures Construction materialHazardsRisk reduction measures ConcreteIrritation of eyes, upper respiratory tract, throat and skin Lung cancer and silicosis Cracking or thickening of skin Wear appropriate PPE including respirator Avoid eating or drinking in areas with cement dust Wash off cement dust using water and soap(Occupational Safety and Health Administration, (n.d.)). StonesStone dust can cause respiratory tract infections such as lung cancer and silicosis(Arjun, (n.d.)). Ensure that workers wear appropriate PPE Reduce dust by watering the stones Select good quality stones with less dust FiberglassEye irritation Skin irritation Respiratory tract infections Bronchitis Asthma Ensure that cutting, trimming and chopping activities are done in confined areas that are well ventilated. Ensure that all workers wear appropriate PPE Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)Causes vision failure, cancer, liver dysfunction, birth defects, bronchitis and asthma Causes dysfunction of thyroid, pancreas, adrenal and reproductive glands Respiratory tract damage Wear appropriate PPE Use alternative materials
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Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities5 (Gromicko, (n.d.)). Pipes, paints, roofing materials, tanks, electrical conduits and cornices Contain lead that can cause abdominal pain, memory loss, tiredness, nausea, depression and constipation (Centers for Diseas Control and Prevention, 2018). Wear appropriate PPE Observe appropriate work practices(Musick, 2017). Use lead-free alternatives Train workers on how to prevent lead exposure (Ontario Ministry of Labour, 2011). Risk assessment on use of materials can be very helpful in ensuring a safe workplace. For example, risk assessment of concrete can be done by determining the content of silica and limestone present in concrete, identifying the health hazards of these compounds, classifying the people that may be harmed and how they will be harmed by the use of concrete, evaluating risks associated with the material and the risk level to each group of potential victims; establishing precautions or risk control measures; creating awareness among potential victims; and following up to ensure that the recommended precautionary measures are implemented. d)Regulations and ACOPS applicable to foundation building One of the activities of foundation building is concreting. This activity involves preparing, pouring and curing concrete in the excavated trenches that have reinforcement installed in them. Some of the regulations and ACOPS (approved code of practice) that would apply to concrete pouring include the following: the formwork should be erected in the trenches by following engineer’s instructions; reinforcement selected should meet design specifications in the contract documents; the reinforcement should be fixed in accordance with the specifications in the foundation design drawings; appropriate concrete mix design should be used to produce concrete that meets the desired strength; concrete ingredients used should be selected by following the pre-determined concrete design criteria; concrete should be vibrated adequately and levelled properly during placement; the concrete should be cured for not less than 7 consecutive days; the production, pouring and curing of concrete should be done under supervision of qualified
Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities6 personnel; all workers involved in concrete works should always wear appropriate PPE; and all activities should be done by following safe work practices. Task 2: Sustainability The chosen material for analysis is cross laminated timber (CLT) i)Advantages of CLT Advantages of CLT include the following: Environmentally friendly: CLT has a very small carbon footprint throughout its lifecycle, including production, transportation, construction and use. The material also renewable and grows naturally. It has minimal air pollution, water pollution and embodied energy(Malmquist, 2017). Durability: CLT is highly durable as long as it is maintained properly. This means that once the building is complete, it will be used for several years without cutting down more trees for repairs, which helps in protecting the environment. Stability and strength: the cross lamination of CLT provides it with superior shear strength performance and high dimensional stability with very low weight to strength ratio. Thermal performance: CLT is a poor conductor of heat hence requires minimal or no insulation. The material does not allow air infiltration thus making it to have better energy efficiency. Speed of construction: CLT elements are usually prefabricated offsite and transported to the site for assembling(Risen, 2014). Thisminimizes waste and saves both construction time and money.
Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities7 Cost saving: the whole life cost of CLT is lower than that of other building materials such as steel and concrete. This is because CLT is durable, requires less maintenance, has low embodied energy, and increases construction time. All these reduces lifecycle costs of CLT. Reduced waste: the fact that CLT elements are prefabricated offsite means minimal wastage. This is very essential in protecting the environment. Recyclable: CLT can be recycled and reused when it reaches its useful life. This reduces the need to extract more natural resources (trees) and the associated environmental impacts of timber production. ii)Disadvantages of CLT The main disadvantage of CLT is that its procurement cost is relatively higher than that of steel or concrete. But its lifecycle costs are lower. In terms of environment and sustainability, there is no apparent disadvantage of CLT. iii)Comparison with traditional materials Some of the materials that may have been used for this kind of building 50 years ago include: traditional timber, lime, straw clay, rammed earth, fly ash, adobe or limestone bricks, stones, bamboo, slate tiles, straw bale, asphalt, bitumen and asbestos. On the other hand, materials that can be used today in this structure are green concrete, fiberglass, steel, glue laminated timber, concrete tiles, ceramic tiles, PVC, plasterboards, hollow blocks, hempcrete, grasscrete, galvanized iron sheets, composites, nanomaterials, etc. The main difference is that today’s materials are selected by considering several factors other than cost, such as sustainability, environmental friendliness, ease of construction, etc. Therefore building materials used today
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Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities8 have low lifecycle costs, are durable, lightweight, saves construction time, flexible, stronger, more sustainable, and environmentally friendlier. Task 3: Materials choice a)Pros and cons of concrete and steel Some of the advantages and disadvantages of concrete and steel are as follows: Advantages of concrete: has high compressive strength; relatively cheap due to readily available ingredients; resistant to corrosion; highly durable; susceptible to few flaws; very low maintenance costs; versatile hence can be molded into any shape; resistant to fire(Kodur, 2014); can withstand harsh weather conditions; and it is easy to repair. Disadvantages of concrete: low tensile strength(Ramaraj, 2016); its final strength depends on the method of making, placing and curing the concrete; susceptible to shrinkage;low strength-to-weight ratio; has low toughness, must be reinforced to prevent cracks; requires formwork during placement that increases cost of construction; long curing time; susceptible to efflorescence in presence of soluble salts; prone to creep development in case of sustained loads; and requires expansion and construction joints to avoid cracks(Sharma, 2017). Advantages of steel include: it is ductile hence does not fail abruptly; can be machined easily; has high strength-to-weight ratio; it is lightweight; steel structures can be manufactured offsite; it is flexible hence can be molded into different shapes; easily available; very durable; can withstand numerous external pressures like earthquakes; easy to transport and install; high construction speed; its strength can be improved at later time (after construction); it is recyclable and reusable (sustainable); and it is efficient(Midwest Steel, (n.d.)).
Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities9 Disadvantages of steel include: it is vulnerable to corrosion; it is susceptible to buckling; has high maintenance costs; relatively costly; and has high expansion rate. b)Alternative material A material with a smaller environmental impact that can be used as an alternative to concrete or steel for making columns and beams of the building is cross laminated timber (CLT). CLT is an engineered wood that is strong, has high strength-to-weight ratio, resistant to rust, and has superior thermal, seismic, fire and acoustic performance(Davids, et al., 2017).CLT is not susceptible to fire like conventional timber because its properties have been improved to make it more resistant to fire and high temperatures(Shrestha, et al., 2014).CLT is also lightweight and easy to install thus reducing construction cost and time. Another important property of CLT is that components can be prefabricated offsite to improve quality control, enable quick construction, reduce wastage, and minimize costs. The CLT has crosswise and longitudinal laminate that reduce shrinkage and swelling thus producing components that are warp-resistant and dimensionally stable(Reynolds, et al., 2017).CLT is usually glued at high pressure making it a rigid structural member suitable for making horizontal and vertical building frames such as beams and columns(Barnes, 2014).However, CLT also has a few disadvantages including vulnerability to moisture and mold (but can be prevented through appropriate treatment and use of preservatives), high maintenance cost, and its structural soundness can decrease with time if it is not maintained properly. CLT is a more sustainable material than concrete or steel because the former is made up of wood, which is a renewable resource. Additionally, production of CLT does not involve burning of fossil fuels like it is the case for concrete or steel(Souza, 2018).Small amount of resources, including energy and water, are used in production of CLT. CLT is also renewable
Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities10 and has the lowest carbon footprint than any other building material, including concrete and steel. Thus CLT has lower environmental impact than concrete and steel. Other potential alternative materials are blocks, bricks and stones. c)Applicable standards There are different standards that would apply when using CLT as a structural component. These standards give guidelines on production, designing, application and maintenance of structural timber elements/components. The standards may be different between countries due to varied environmental and seismic conditions that result to different building codes. Some of the applicable standards include: BS 5268 – Structural use of timber, BS EN 14080 – Timber structures, BS 14081 – Timber structures, BS EN 386 – Glue laminated timber, AS 1720 – Timber structures, NZS 3603 – Timber structures, NDS – National design specification for wood construction, CSA 086 – Engineering design in wood structures, AS/NZS 1080 – Timber (methods of test), and AS/NZS 2878 – Timber strength classification, among others. d)Testing procedure The testing procedure to determine if the CLT would be able to support the building entails the following: calculating the total load (dead and live loads) that the CLT component will support; using applicable codes and standards to determine design specifications of the component; using the pre-determined specifications to design a sample of the CLT component; testing the sample using a suitable machine (such as universal testing machine) to determine various properties of the sample; using the test results to determine appropriate property values such as compressive strength, tensile strength, shear strength, flexural strength, bond strength, etc.); and evaluating the results obtained to determine if they meet the minimum design specifications or requirements. Some of the common tests that can be performed on CLT are
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Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities11 tension test (to determine tensile strength), compression test (to determine compressive strength) and bending test (to determine bending strength). The general procedure of performing these tests is: preparing the test sample; setting up the test machine; fitting the test sample into the machine; starting the test by applying small increments of the load on the test sample; stopping the machine when the sample fractures at maximum load; and using the recorded data to calculate desired parameters. e)Importance of standards The standard ensures that results of a test conducted can be compared to other materials in any part of the world by providing specifications that a timber component should have so as to be able to perform a particular function and also the procedure that must be followed by performing the test. For instance, the standard can provide specifications (such as geometrical parameters) that a timber component should have so as to attain minimum values or limits of different mechanical properties such as flexural strength, tensile strength, compressive strength, bending stress and buckling stress. The standard also provides guidelines of ensuring good workmanship for high quality timber components. This ensures that the members designed and selected for a particular use meet the minimum performance requirements, including strength, safety, durability, etc. f)Impacts of sustainable considerations and practices Use of sustainable considerations and practices when selecting materials can improve environmental rating of a completed building in the following ways: minimizing heat loss/gain from and/or into the building thus reducing energy consumption for heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC); maximizing daylighting thus reducing energy consumption for lighting; maximizing natural ventilation thus reducing energy consumption for ventilation; using
Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities12 automated building management systems thus reducing overall energy and water consumption in the building; minimizing wastage of water and energy in the building; using recycled and recyclable materials to minimize wastage and extraction of natural resources; using durable materials thus reducing cost of operating and maintaining the building; ensuring that wastes generated from the building are collected and recycled; and helping occupants understand their role in making the building to be more sustainable. g)Maximum column load Equation 1 below (Euler column formula) is used for calculating maximum load that a column can support F=nπ²EI L²……………………………….……………….. (1) Where F is the maximum column load; n is a factor of end conditions of the column; I is the second moment of area; E is the Young’s modulus; and L is the free length of the column. E = 35 x 109N/m2, n = 4 (the column is fixed at each end), L = 4m The second moment of area of a circular object is calculated using equation 2 below I=πr4 4…………..………………….……………….. (2) Diameter of column = 0.5m → radius, r = 0.25m I=πx(0.25m)4 4=0.00307m4 Using equation 1 to calculate maximum load
Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities13 F=4xπ2x35x109N/m2x0.00307m4 (4m)2=2.65x108N Task 4: Human comfort requirements a)Indoor environmental conditions Some of the generally accepted indoor environmental conditions are provided in Table 2 below Table 2: Generally accepted indoor environmental conditions Indoor environmental conditionGenerally accepted values Temperature20°C – 26°C(Arifin & Denan, 2015) Radiant temperature19°C – 30°C Relative humidity30% - 50%(Vanvuren, 2018) Ventilation5l/s/person – 10l/s/person(Clark, 2013) Illumination500 flux to 1000 flux(Mount Lighting, (n.d.)) Reverberation60dB – 80dB(Acoustic Bulletin, 2018) b)Heat needed for constant indoor temperature The rate at which heat needs to be generated so as to maintain indoor temperature at a particular temperature is calculated using equation 3 below H = A x U x ΔT …..……………………………………… (3) Where H is the rate of heat generated; A is the surface area of the building element in m2; U is the heat transfer of a surface in W/m2°C; and ΔT is difference between inside and outside temperature in °C. The dimensions of the building being built is 80m long, 20m wide and 20m high. Surface area of different elements of the building is calculated as follows: Surface area of outside wall on longest sides = (80m x 20m) x 2 = 3,200m2
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Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities14 Surface area of outside wall on shortest sides = (20m x 20m) x 2 = 800m2 Total surface area of outside wall = 3200 + 800 = 4,000m2 But windows make up 30% of outside wall area hence surface area of wall and windows is determined as follows: Total surface area of wall =70 100x4,000m2=2,800m2 Total surface area of windows =30 100x4,000m2=1,200m2 Area of floor = 80m x 20m = 1,600m2 Area of roof (flat roof) = 80m x 20m = 1,600m2 The rate of heat needed for the various elements is calculated as follows: ΔT = 20°C – 0° = 20°C Hwalls= 2,800m2x 0.2W/m2°C x 20°C = 11.2kW Hroof= 1,600m2x 0.23W/m2°C x 20°C = 7.36kW Hfloor= 1,600m2x 0.23W/m2°C x 20°C = 7.36kW Hwindows= 1,200m2x 0.9W/m2°C x 20°C = 21.6kW Total heat = Hwalls+ Hroof+ Hfloor+ Hwindows = 11.2kW + 7.36kW + 7.36kW + 21.6kW = 47.52kW c)Heat loss Volume of average fresh air needed per person = 8l/s = 0.008m3/s
Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities15 Number of occupants = 150 Total volume of fresh air needed in the building = 0.008m3/s/person x 150 persons = 1.2m3/s Difference between inside and outside temperature = 20°C – 0° = 20°C Amount of heat lost is calculated using equation 4 below H = ρ x V x ΔT …………………………………………………… (4) Where H is the amount of heat lost from the building; ρ is the specific heat capacity of air; V is the volume of fresh air needed in the building; and ΔT = temperature difference. H = 1kJ/m3°C x 1.2m3/s x 20°C = 24kJ/s 1J/s = 1W; hence 24kJ/s = 24kW d)Reverberation time Reverberation time is calculated using equation 5 below T=0.161V A……………………………….…………………. (5) Where T is the reverberation time in seconds; V is the total volume of the building; and A is the total sound absorption of the building calculated by multiplying the sound absorption coefficient of material of the building element by the surface area of that particular element. Total volume of the building = 17m x 30m x 8m = 4,080m3 Area of walls on longest side = (30m x 8m) x 2 = 480m2 Area of walls on shortest side = (17m x 8m) x 2 = 272m2 Total area of outside walls = 480m2+ 272m2= 752m2
Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities16 Total surface area of acoustic timber wall =70 100x752m2=526.4m2 Total surface area of glass wall =30 100x752m2=225.6m2 Area of floor = 17m x 30m = 510m2 Area of ceiling = 17m x 30m = 510m2 Reverberation time for the different building elements is calculated as follows: Tglass-wall=0.161x4080 0.03x225.6=97.06s Ttimber-wall=0.161x4080 0.42x526.4=2.97s Tfloor=0.161x4080 0.25x510=5.15s Tceiling=0.161x4080 0.85x510=1.52s Total reverberation time of the space = Tglass-wall+ Ttimber-wall+ Tfloor+ Tceiling = 97.06s + 2.97s + 5.15s + 1.52s = 106.7s e)Maximum audience scenario What would be expected to happen when the hall was packed to the maximum (200 people) is to see a decrease in reverberation time. This is because an increase in people in the room increases the surface area or objects to absorb sound. Since the volume of the hall remains the same, an increase in number of people increases the surface area for sound absorption thus causing the reverberation time to decrease.
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Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities17 f)Building design consideration There are several factors that must be put into consideration when designing a building so as to minimize its utilization of energy and other resources during different phases of its lifecycle. Some of these factors include the following: location of the building, orientation of the building, layout of rooms in the building, intended use of the building, size of the building, materials used for different building elements, landscaping features, building envelope, type of roof, type and sizes of windows, and source of resources such as water and energy.
Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities18 References Acoustic Bulletin, 2018.Room acoustic descriptors - RT, C50 and strength/gain.[Online] Available at:https://www.acousticbulletin.com/room-acoustic-descriptors-rt-c50-and-gain [Accessed 22 January 2019]. Anumba, C. & Bishop, G., 2011. Importance of safety considerations in site layout and organization. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering,24(2), pp. 229-236. Arifin, N. & Denan, Z., 2015. An analysis of indoor air temperature and relative humidity in office room with various external shading devices in Malaysia.Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,Volume 179, pp. 290-296. Arjun, N., (n.d.).Health Issues with Building Materials During and after Construction.[Online] Available at:https://theconstructor.org/building/health-issues-building-materials-construction/17399/ [Accessed 22 January 2019]. Barnes, R., 2014.Cross Laminated Timber.[Online] Available at:https://constructionreviewonline.com/2013/03/cross-laminated-timber/ [Accessed 22 January 2019]. Centers for Diseas Control and Prevention, 2018.Health Problems Caused by Lead.[Online] Available at:https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/lead/health.html [Accessed 22 January 2019]. Clark, D., 2013.Ventilation Rates in Offices - Mechanical and Natural,Newcastle, UK: Cundall Johnston & Partners LLP. Davids, W. et al., 2017. Structural performance of hybrid SPFs-LSL cross-laminated timber panels. Construction and Building Materials,149(1), pp. 156-163. Gromicko, N., (n.d.).PVC health hazards.[Online] Available at:https://www.nachi.org/pvc-health-hazards.htm [Accessed 22 January 2019]. Kanchana, S., Sivaprakash, P. & Joseph, S., 2015. Studies on Labour Safety in Construction Sites.The Scientific World Journal,Volume 2015, pp. 1-6. Kodur, V., 2014. Properties of Concrete at Elevated Temperatures.International Scholarly Research Notices Civil Engineering,Volume 2014, pp. 1-15. Malmquist, C., 2017.Benefits of Building with Cross Laminated Timber.[Online] Available at:https://www.acppubs.com/articles/509-benefits-of-building-with-cross-laminated-timber [Accessed 22 January 2019]. Midwest Steel, (n.d.).Advantages of Steel.[Online] Available at:https://www.midweststeel.com/about/advantages-of-steel.html [Accessed 22 January 2019].
Environmental Impacts and Sustainability of Construction Activities19 Mount Lighting, (n.d.).CIBSE Recommended Lighting Levels.[Online] Available at:https://www.mountlighting.co.uk/cibse-recomended-lighting-levels/ [Accessed 22 January 2019]. Musick, T., 2017.Protecting workers from lead exposure.[Online] Available at:https://www.safetyandhealthmagazine.com/articles/15545-protecting-workers-from-lead- exposure [Accessed 22 January 2019]. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, (n.d.).Concrete Manufacturing.[Online] Available at:https://www.osha.gov/Publications/concrete_manufacturing.html [Accessed 22 January 2019]. Ontario Ministry of Labour, 2011.Controlling the Lead Hazard.[Online] Available at:https://www.labour.gov.on.ca/english/hs/pubs/lead/gl_lead_4.php [Accessed 22 January 2019]. Ramaraj, S., 2016. A Review on Bacteria -Based Self-Healing Concrete.Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research,3(1), pp. 1023-1026. Reynolds, T. et al., 2017. Lateral-Load Resistance of Cross-Laminated Timber Shear Walls.Journal of Structural Engineering,143(12), pp. 1-10. Risen, C., 2014.Cross-Laminated Timber is the Most Advanced Building Material.[Online] Available at:https://www.popsci.com/article/technology/worlds-most-advanced-building-material- wood-0 [Accessed 22 January 2019]. Sadeghpour, F. & Andayesh, M., 2015. The constructs of site layout modeling: an overview.Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering,42(3), pp. 199-212. Sanad, H., Ammar, M. & Ibrahim, M., 2009. Optimal Construction Site Layout Considering Safety and Environmental Aspects.Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,134(7), pp. 536-544. Sharma, S., 2017.Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete.[Online] Available at:https://civilengineering.blog/2017/09/12/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-concrete/ [Accessed 22 January 2019]. Shrestha, R., Lewis, K. & Crews, K., 2014.Introduction to cross laminated timber and development of design procedures for Australia and New Zealand.Ultimo, NSW, Southern Cross University. Souza, E., 2018.Cross Laminated Timber (CLT): What It Is and How To Use It.[Online] Available at:https://www.archdaily.com/893442/cross-laminated-timber-clt-what-it-is-and-how-to-use- it [Accessed 22 January 2019]. Vanvuren, C., 2018.What Is Relative Humidity, and What’s an Ideal Level for Your Home?.[Online] Available at:https://molekule.com/blog/what-is-relative-humidity/ [Accessed 22 January 2019].
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