Ancient Egypt: Literature & Culture

This assignment delves into the rich world of ancient Egyptian literature and culture. Students will analyze a selection of provided texts, including poetry, narratives, and manuals of instruction. The analysis should focus on identifying key themes, understanding the historical context in which these works were created, and evaluating their influence on Egyptian society and beyond.

Running head: ANCIENT EGYPT
Ancient Egyptian Make up
Name of the Student:
Name of the University:
Author note:

1ANCIENT EGYPT
"A woman without paint is like food without salt."- Roman philosopher, Plautus.
This essay identifies the various aspects and uses of cosmetics in ancient Egypt. Ancient
civilizations of the world have used forms of cosmetics unrecognizable in today’s cosmetics
world. For thousands of years both men and women were using cosmetics in religious
ceremonies, beatification and maintaining good health. The usage of cosmetics reveals practical
concerns of health, social issues and conventions of enhancing beauty1. In 10000 BCE, the
people of ancient Egypt were mainly concerned with the skin care and protection from the
sunburns and rough winds. They used ointments, oils and creams obtained from the natural
extraction from flowers and fruits like olive and almond. In 4000 BCE, the concern skin
protection and hygiene maintenances shifted to apply color on faces to enhance beauty2. This
includes colorful eye makeup, rough as well as the perfumes to prevent body odor.
1 Torrence, Robin, and Huw Barton, eds. Ancient starch research. Routledge, 2016
2 White, JE Manchip. Ancient Egypt: Its culture and history. Courier Corporation, 2013

2ANCIENT EGYPT
Ancient Egyptian women busy doing make ups
(Source: Cosmetics Used By Anciemt Egyptians - Google Search)
Natural and chemical cosmetics:
The cosmetics used by the Egyptians included both natural and chemical ingredients. The
galena was made from lead and copper ore and malachite was a green paste made of copper
minerals3. The natural ingredients included lily, rose, lavender, cedar, olive and almond extracts.
The famous eye makeup named ‘kohl’ was a mixture of oxidized copper and copper ores, burnt
almonds, ash, ochre and lead.
Natural cosmetics
("Cosmetics Used By Anciemt Egyptians - Google Search")
3 Rosenow, Daniela, and Th Rehren. "Herding cats–Roman to Late Antique glass groups from
Bubastis, northern Egypt." Journal of Archaeological Science 49 (2014): 170-184.

3ANCIENT EGYPT
Cosmetics in differentiating social classes:
The usage and variations of makeup were different in different social class4. As the
history says the ancient Egypt had class divisions in society, where the upper class of people
used more makeup and the lower class could afford less. Although there were not much variation
in cosmetics and styles but the usage varied according to skin type and color. The high-class
noble women used to use power and colors for making their skin fairer and paler5. It was because
pale skin defined nobility and less exposure into sun and darker skin was the sign of lower class.
As they did menial tasks under the sun therefore, were tanned.
Different makeup for male:
The history says that during the rule of Ramses III, the Egyptian men used massage oils
and greasy balm. The labors soothed their aching muscles with these oils. The noble men before
attending court, banquet and celebration used to adore their eyes with eye makeup6. The kings
like Tutankhamen were fashion icon of that time. The sarcophagus of this young pharaoh proves
that he used kohl liner extending beyond the eyelids. Later the black kohl was replaced by green.
The green eye shadow on the upper leaf was used to highlight and give definition.
4 Wilson, John A. The culture of ancient Egypt. University of Chicago Press, 2013.
5 Roberts, John Morris, and Odd Arne Westad. The history of the world. Oxford University
Press, USA, 2013.
6 Reich, Michael. Racial inequality: A political-economic analysis. Princeton University Press,
2017.

4ANCIENT EGYPT
Cosmetics used by the Pharaohs
("Cosmetics Used By Anciemt Egyptians - Google Search")
Usage of different makeup
Eye makeup:
The men and women did not only use eye makeup, but they adorned gods and goddesses
with similar cosmetics7. Ancient Egypt‘s eye cosmetics were extremely elaborate to create the
eye look like almonds8. Eye makeup had a long past in Ancient world and both everyone used
eye makeup since 4000BC. These were applied on eyebrows, eyelashes and eyelids9. The
favorite colors of eye makeup were green and black. The colored powders were mixed with
water to form the liner paste. They used galena; a blue-grey mineral obtained from lead sulfide
7 Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern texts relating to the Old Testament with supplement. Princeton
University Press, 2016
8 Oppenheim, A. Leo. Ancient Mesopotamia: portrait of a dead civilization. University of
Chicago Press, 2013.
9 Paynter, Sarah, and Michael Tite. "The evolution of glazing technologies in the ancient Near
East and Egypt." The Social Context of Technological Change: Egypt and the Near East, 1650-
1150 BC (2016).

5ANCIENT EGYPT
and mixed it with soot to form kohl. The green colored eyeliner came from malachite, a copper
ore that they imported from Sinai desert. The use of eye makeup had various positive impacts on
their health and hygiene10. They used the green eye makeup to induce the sun God Horus. Unlike
Indians, the Egyptian mothers used to apply black kohl to their newborn infant’s eyes, as they
believed that this application would prevent them from evil eyes and strengthen their eyesight.
Egyptian face makeup:
Egyptians used rouge to color their cheeks and lips. They preferred red color and the
color was formed by the use of red ochre. This red ochre was a pigment made of hydrated iron
oxide. The process of making rouge needed chemical mastery11. It was first mined then washed
to extract the ochre from sand. It was dried under the sunrays or burnt to enhance the natural
pigment.
Special make ups
("Cosmetics Used By Anciemt Egyptians - Google Search")
Nail and hair care:
10 McManus, Paulette M., ed. Archaeological displays and the public: museology and interpretation. Routledge,
2016
11 Montserrat, Dominic. Akhenaten: history, fantasy and ancient Egypt. Routledge, 2014

6ANCIENT EGYPT
The Egyptians used henna to color their nails as well as hair. The condition and health of
hair and nails used to indicate the social status. The Henna leaves were used to make their hair
healthy and give nourishment. Henna also provided the color to the nails and hair. Henna dye
was made from the leaves and stems of henna plants, which he imported from tropical regions of
Africa. They dried, grounded and sifted the leaves and mixed it with water to make the henna
paste. Not only beautification but also henna was used for its cooling effect12.
12 McClellan III, James E., and Harold Dorn. Science and technology in world history: an introduction. JHU Press,
2015

7ANCIENT EGYPT
Hair care accessories
Source: Cosmetics Used By Anciemt Egyptians - Google Search
Oils and perfumes:

8ANCIENT EGYPT
Egyptian perfumes and oils were renowned all over the world and were exported in the
other contemporary civilizations. They used numerous oils and perfumes obtained from plants,
flower even seeds. They used to make creams from animal and vegetable fats and blended the
perfumes with those creams13. Balanos was a form of castor oil that they used for skincare.
Beside these, myrrh, cardamom and frankincense were mixed with the fragrances14. Pliny
referred to a kind of perfume that lasted for eight years. They process of making fragrances were
not very simple. They collected blossoms and roots of iris, lilies bitter almonds and roses and
soaked them in oil. They even cooked sometimes to extract the fragrance and mixed the oil to
form the liquid perfumes. In making fragranced creams, they used fats and wax. Some of the
perfumes had more than a dozen ingredients. The use of wigs was also found in ancient Egyptian
society15. There the people used to carry little cones containing solid perfumes hidden under the
hair. They also wore lotus flowers on their hairs because using of perfumed cones was a little
difficult to carry.
Pleasant odors were largely associated with the Egyptian Gods and Goddesses16. They
adored their Gods with various kinds of fragrances as they believed that it would give them
pleasure and satisfaction. The kings and queens were responsible in this matter. The odors of the
Gods are made from fragrant woods, myrrh and frankincense. It is not surprising that these were
the best ingredients and most expensive as well. They were imported from Punt, Africa and Asia.
13 MacDonald, Sally, and Michael Rice, eds. Consuming Ancient Egypt. Routledge, 2016.
14 Killen, Geoffrey. Ancient Egyptian Furniture. Vol. 2. 2017
15 Jayawardena, Kumari. Feminism and nationalism in the Third World. Verso Books, 2016.
16 Zhuo, Xiaolin, Barry Wellman, and Justine Yu. "Egypt: the first Internet revolt?." Boletim do
Tempo Presente 02 (2015).

9ANCIENT EGYPT
Except gods, some rich like royal family could afford this kind of perfumes17.
Soaps and washing ingredients:
For making soaps, the Egyptians used swabu. It was a paste containing scented ash and
clay and could be turned into lather. They also mixed animal and vegetable fats with alkalized
salts. The papyrus of Ebers Medical describes this kind of soaps. The soaps were usually used to
treat skin problems and diseases as well as for washing or cleaning body.
As the Egyptians usually walked barefoot, their feet went dusty18. Their floor and the
roads outside had no difference as both were made of earth. Therefore, for the labor class it did
not matter much. The upper class people used footbaths made of wood and clay probably both at
the same time. In ancient Egypt, the presence of bathrooms and bathtubs can be seen in the
better-off person’s houses. They used stoves in bathrooms to heat water for cleaning and
washing feet19.
17 Jaspers, Karl. The Origin and Goal of History (Routledge Revivals). Routledge, 2014.
18 Goldschmidt Jr, Arthur, and Aomar Boum. A concise history of the Middle East. Hachette UK,
2015.
19 Green, Roger Lancelyn. Tales of ancient Egypt. Penguin, 2016.

10ANCIENT EGYPT
Mouthwash:
Not only the numerous fragrances used to prevent body and hair odor but the ancient
Egyptians also used the solution of natron called ‘bed’ for mouthwash20. The ancient Egyptians
chewed herbs and root sticks in order to improve breath. If soap or perfumes fail to get rid of
such odor, they used to visit and seek the advice from the physicians21.
Hair:
The ancient Egyptians used fashionable wigs. The men kept their hair short and the
women used to curl and plaited their long hair. The higher-class people used wigs more often
and dyed with henna. The priests did not use wigs and shaved their hair off. The children wore
the ‘lock of youth’. For being the habitat of head lice, they often shoved off their hair. They used
to put oil to prevent lice and diseases transmitted by the lice. The priests used to shave off all the
body hair to get rid of this kind of nuisance. The ancient Egyptians also used setting lotions by
mixing resin and bee wax. It also helped in preventing grey hair and balding22.
20 Gardiner, Alan H. The attitude of the ancient Egyptians to death and the dead. Cambridge
University Press, 2014.
21 Freud, Sigmund. Moses and monotheism. Leonardo Paolo Lovari, 2016.
22 Freeman, Charles. Egypt, Greece, and Rome: civilizations of the ancient Mediterranean.
Oxford University Press, 2014.

11ANCIENT EGYPT
Cosmetics used by the women
("Cosmetics Used By Anciemt Egyptians - Google Search")
Nails:
The manicurists of the royal palace used to look after the fingernails of the courtiers and
the royal family. They were all under supervision of the palace’s head manicurists. These
manicurists had very prestigious position in the court because they hold the responsibilities to
groom the body the kings and queens. They were assisted by the beauticians in this work and
enjoyed the power and pride23.
23 Forster, Edward Morgan. Alexandria: A History and Guide. Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2014.

12ANCIENT EGYPT
Women dressing up each others nail
(Source: "Cosmetics Used By Egyptians For Nails - Google Search")
Preservation of young looks:
The history says that most of the Egyptians were dead by the ages of forty. Therefore,
they used to crave for preserving their youthful looks throughout their lifetime24. The scars and
wounds of accidents were not healed easily. Therefore, they used various natural ingredients like
honey, plant juices and ointments. The burn marks were treated with and ointment made from a
mixture of kohl, sycamore and red ochre. The oil made from Greek hay or fenugreek was used to
conditioning skin. Honey is a natural antibacterial, which was used by the royal and upper class
women25. They mixed gums of moringa oil, fermented plant juices, frankincense, and cypress
grass with wax and applied on their skin to prevent aging and wrinkle due to over exposure to
sun.
24 Forster, Edward Morgan. Alexandria: A History and Guide. Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2014.
25 Erman, Adolf. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians: Poems, Narratives, and Manuals of
Instruction from the Third and Second Millenia BC. Routledge, 2015.

13ANCIENT EGYPT
Special eye make up
(Source: "Cosmetics Used By Egyptians Pharoahs - Google Search")
Hygiene:
The ancient Egyptians used to apply kohl in their eye, as they believed that kohl would
prevent them from eye diseases. As galena has disinfectant qualities, it was used to form this
pigment. Even the physician has also prescribed kohl for it prevented ocular infection. kohl was
a deterrent to flies. The soot used to make kohl helped in protecting the eyes from sun’s glare.
The kohl was made of lead-based substances, which promoted the formation of nitric oxide in
the skin. This helped in strengthening immune systems26. To treat lip and cheek stain and
improving skin they used mixture of honey, red natron and northern salt. Henna was used as a
26 Denon, Vivant. Travels in upper and lower Egypt. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 2015.

14ANCIENT EGYPT
healing shrub. They used it for cooling and cleansing the skin. Henna leaves were used in ancient
Egypt to paint the fingers of nobles and Pharaohs before mummification. As Egyptian men wrote
most of the records, the references of menstruation were very less. Ebers Papyrus mentions some
usage of medicinal plants used by the women in their monthly periods. However, the Egyptians
strongly believed that these cosmetics had the magical healing effects rather than medicinal27.
Image of the make up of the ancient Egyptians
( Source: "Cosmetics Used By Egyptians Pharoahs - Google Search")
Chemistry:
In ancient Egypt, there are mainly two forms of eye makeup that is the grepond eye paint
and the black kohl. In general, the eye paint is made up of malachite, that is in particular a copper
carbonate pigment and the black kohl is made of a substance that is called the galena which is a
dark grey ore of lead. The malachite was used in the ancient days like in the pre dynastic period.
In case of the Kohl in the ancient days was made up of two components like the phosgenite and
27 Caruth, Cathy. Unclaimed experience: Trauma, narrative, and history. JHU Press, 2016.

15ANCIENT EGYPT
the laurionite. At that time these chemicals were not found in Egypt, so instead of these two
chemicals they used wet chemistry so that it could easily be synthesized by the filtration of the
natron and the rock salt28. The facial makeup included the stains that are applied on the lips and
the cheeks and has been produced from the red ochre that is a natural colored clay. The clay is
washed and mined and then dried in the sunlight or even burnt so that the red colored pigment
colored can be achieved. The henna which is the naturally occurring plant has been used by the
talented ancient Egyptians to paint it on their nails as nail polish and also to dye their hair.
Medical usage:
There are many medical usages of the ancient cosmetic that has been used by the
Egyptians. In the ancient days in Egypt, there was a misconception that the Kohl would prevent
infections in the eye but that was somewhat true as it did prevent an ocular infection that was
caused because of the flooding of the Nile. The lead based substances that is present in the Kohl
helps in promoting the nitric oxide in their skin that will make them strengthen their immunity
powers and make them fight against the diseases. The soot in the kohl helped them to reduce the
effects of the damage that has been primarily due to the sun glares in the eyes. The Egyptians
have created a remedy for these burns that is made up with a mixture of the red natron, honey
and the northern salt that will help to improve the cheek and the lip stains. The Egyptians solely
believed in these herbal and the magical effects of these cosmetics rather than any such medical
improvisations29.
28 Breasted, James Henry. A history of Egypt. Cambridge University Press, 2016.
29 Bevan, Edwyn. A History of Egypt Under the Ptolemaic Dynasty (Routledge Revivals).
Routledge, 2014.

16ANCIENT EGYPT
Make up used in Ancient Egypt
(Source: Cosmetics Used By Anciemt Egyptians - Google Search)
The cosmetics that were used in the ancient days were to enhance the personality as well
as the health of a person. The ingredients that were used were the creams, oils and the different
ointments that was made to soften one’s skin, also protecting it from the different sun burns, eyes
and the self esteem. The cosmetics that were manufactured by the professionals who eventually
took their work very seriously so that the product does not get judged in a harsh way and even if
the judgement is not the best the reputation along with their good receptions by the Gods. The
science behind the cosmetics of the Egyptians was so advanced at that time as said by the Oxford
English Dictionary. As suggested by Bozeman, (2017) that the support to the etymology has
been suggested in a comprehensive knowledgeable way in the world of medicines.
On a daily basis the cosmetics that were used from the Predynastic Period in Egypt (c.

17ANCIENT EGYPT
6000 – c. 3150 BCE) were usually applied by both men and women. All these cosmetics were
manufactured at a professional level and were sold at the market places that are somehow lesser
in quality than at their home. It was their ritual in the morning that after one rose from the bed
they would go for bathing. In their household activities no matter what their class is they had
made a jug and a basin that is particularly for washing and showering. Foot baths were also made
of stone, ceramic and faience or wood especially for washing their feet. This was produced in a
mass way that was particularly during the first Intermediate Period of Egypt (2181-2040 BCE) as
double foot baths and single foot baths. Almost after bath in every morning came the application
of cream that was equivalent of the sun blocks in today’s world.
In ancient Egypt the focus was primarily on the eyes that were outlined usually by black
or green eye paints and that mostly emphasized on their shape and size. The Kohl was created in
a unique way by mixing various natural elements like powder and oils or fats until the fat was
produced. The Kohl was quite an expensive cosmetic that was usually available for the upper
class people that seemed pleasant to oneself and has variants of the cosmetics. This was
manufactured from the chemicals that is unclear.
Cleopatra:
None could deny that the beauty of Queen Cleopatra was specially intrigued by many
women and men even in today’s world for centuries. She is one of the most famous figures at
that contemporary time whose secrets were still endowed in today’s world. People still wants to
know what made her so beautiful, her beauty secrets and why are some of the most famous
personalities were surrounded by them. Cleopatra was a very exceptional woman of that time
who loved herself and also knew about the different secrets that was her weapon. She followed
some of the most astonishing ways like he bathed in honey and milk. She used to mix the fresh

18ANCIENT EGYPT
milk of the donkey with the almond and the honey oils. She even scrubbed her body using the
different sea salts and mixed the face creams using the different essentials and the oils. The facial
mask of the Cleopatra was a very refreshing one that was a mixture of different oils. She also
made an antiseptic nourishing mask that included the egg yolk, almond oil and honey30. She also
used natural shampoo and did a hot oil hair treatment to make her hair grow long and smooth.
Image of Cleopatra
(Source: Cleopatra - Google Search)
Nefertiti:
The beauty and the cosmetics secrets of Nefertiti was also famous not like much like that
30 Bagnall, Roger, and Raffaella Cribiore. Women's letters from ancient Egypt, 300 BC-AD 800.
University of Michigan Press, 2015.

19ANCIENT EGYPT
of Cleopatra. She was once the queen and was regarded as the first woman that hair brushed and
that there was no need for any expensive lotions31. The most significant aspect of beauty amongst
the people of the Egyptians was her bust. The elaborate eye make up was first adopted from
Nefertiti and she had her own blend of Kohl that had the anti bacterial properties. The women at
that time removed their heavy makeup with the help of the poop of the nightingale.
31 Assmann, Egyptologist Jan. Death and salvation in ancient Egypt. Cornell University Press,
2015.

20ANCIENT EGYPT
Image off the eye make up of the Egyptian Queen Nefertiti
(Source: Beauty Nefertiti - Google Search)
The use of the different cosmetics between the social classes that has more make up

21ANCIENT EGYPT
norms that has been worn by the high class individuals that acts wealthier than those afforded by
the make ups. There was initially no prominent difference between the styles of the cosmetics
that includes for both the lower and the upper classes that also includes the noble women that
were best for pale skin colors by using the different powders and the creams. The pale look was
due to the sign of nobility that has a lighter skin that is less than the exposures to the sun whereas
the ones who have a dark skin are associated with lower class who is a menial labor to the people
who are working on the fields32. The paler skin is represented by the non working noble class as
the noble women would not work in the sun.
(Source: Egyptians Pharoahs - Google Search)
32 Anderson, Graham. Ancient Fiction (routledge Revivals): The Novel in the Graeco-roman
World. Routledge, 2014.

22ANCIENT EGYPT
From the above a vivid idea of the make up and the cosmetics that has been used by the
ancient Egyptians has been vividly explained in this essay. The essay is all about how the early
Egyptians dressed themselves and what are the particular measurements that they used to take in
order to maintain their make ups. A brief view to the different hair care, nails, eye and mouth
wash has been made. Cleopatra and Nefertiti has also been chosen as the two major characters
whose make up has widely influenced the people worldwide even till date. These two major
characters has been discussed along with their beauty secrets and make up ideas. On a daily basis
what are the things that the early Egyptian people did from morning to night how they dressed
themselves has also been discussed. Overall at the end a wide analysis of the ancient Egyptian
make up has been done that introduces as well as discusses all the major topics that are under this
broad topic. This topic is really interesting and while making a research on it, a lot of unknown
facts has been viewed.

23ANCIENT EGYPT
References
Anderson, Graham. Ancient Fiction (routledge Revivals): The Novel in the Graeco-roman
World. Routledge, 2014.
Assmann, Egyptologist Jan. Death and salvation in ancient Egypt. Cornell University Press,
2015.
Bagnall, Roger, and Raffaella Cribiore. Women's letters from ancient Egypt, 300 BC-AD 800.
University of Michigan Press, 2015.
Bevan, Edwyn. A History of Egypt Under the Ptolemaic Dynasty (Routledge Revivals).
Routledge, 2014.
Bozeman, Adda B. Politics and culture in international history: from the ancient Near East to
the opening of the modern age. Routledge, 2017.
Breasted, James Henry. A history of Egypt. Cambridge University Press, 2016.
Caruth, Cathy. Unclaimed experience: Trauma, narrative, and history. JHU Press, 2016.
Denon, Vivant. Travels in upper and lower Egypt. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Erman, Adolf. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians: Poems, Narratives, and Manuals of
Instruction from the Third and Second Millenia BC. Routledge, 2015.
Forster, Edward Morgan. Alexandria: A History and Guide. Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2014.
Freeman, Charles. Egypt, Greece, and Rome: civilizations of the ancient Mediterranean. Oxford
University Press, 2014.
Freud, Sigmund. Moses and monotheism. Leonardo Paolo Lovari, 2016.

24ANCIENT EGYPT
Gardiner, Alan H. The attitude of the ancient Egyptians to death and the dead. Cambridge
University Press, 2014.
Goldschmidt Jr, Arthur, and Aomar Boum. A concise history of the Middle East. Hachette UK,
2015.
Green, Roger Lancelyn. Tales of ancient Egypt. Penguin, 2016.
Jaspers, Karl. The Origin and Goal of History (Routledge Revivals). Routledge, 2014.
Jayawardena, Kumari. Feminism and nationalism in the Third World. Verso Books, 2016.
Killen, Geoffrey. Ancient Egyptian Furniture. Vol. 2. 2017.
MacDonald, Sally, and Michael Rice, eds. Consuming Ancient Egypt. Routledge, 2016.
McClellan III, James E., and Harold Dorn. Science and technology in world history: an
introduction. JHU Press, 2015.
McManus, Paulette M., ed. Archaeological displays and the public: museology and
interpretation. Routledge, 2016.
Montserrat, Dominic. Akhenaten: history, fantasy and ancient Egypt. Routledge, 2014.
Oppenheim, A. Leo. Ancient Mesopotamia: portrait of a dead civilization. University of Chicago
Press, 2013.
Paynter, Sarah, and Michael Tite. "The evolution of glazing technologies in the ancient Near
East and Egypt." The Social Context of Technological Change: Egypt and the Near East, 1650-
1150 BC (2016).
Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern texts relating to the Old Testament with

25ANCIENT EGYPT
supplement. Princeton University Press, 2016.
Reich, Michael. Racial inequality: A political-economic analysis. Princeton University Press,
2017.
Roberts, John Morris, and Odd Arne Westad. The history of the world. Oxford University Press,
USA, 2013.
Rosenow, Daniela, and Th Rehren. "Herding cats–Roman to Late Antique glass groups from
Bubastis, northern Egypt." Journal of Archaeological Science 49 (2014): 170-184.
Torrence, Robin, and Huw Barton, eds. Ancient starch research. Routledge, 2016.
White, JE Manchip. Ancient Egypt: Its culture and history. Courier Corporation, 2013.
Wilson, John A. The culture of ancient Egypt. University of Chicago Press, 2013.
Zhuo, Xiaolin, Barry Wellman, and Justine Yu. "Egypt: the first Internet revolt?." Boletim do
Tempo Presente 02 (2015).

26ANCIENT EGYPT
Bibliography
Anderson, Graham. Ancient Fiction (routledge Revivals): The Novel in the Graeco-roman
World. Routledge, 2014.
Assmann, Egyptologist Jan. Death and salvation in ancient Egypt. Cornell University Press,
2015.
Bagnall, Roger, and Raffaella Cribiore. Women's letters from ancient Egypt, 300 BC-AD 800.
University of Michigan Press, 2015.
Bevan, Edwyn. A History of Egypt Under the Ptolemaic Dynasty (Routledge Revivals).
Routledge, 2014.
Bozeman, Adda B. Politics and culture in international history: from the ancient Near East to
the opening of the modern age. Routledge, 2017.
Breasted, James Henry. A history of Egypt. Cambridge University Press, 2016.
Caruth, Cathy. Unclaimed experience: Trauma, narrative, and history. JHU Press, 2016.
Denon, Vivant. Travels in upper and lower Egypt. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Erman, Adolf. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians: Poems, Narratives, and Manuals of
Instruction from the Third and Second Millenia BC. Routledge, 2015.
Forster, Edward Morgan. Alexandria: A History and Guide. Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2014.
Freeman, Charles. Egypt, Greece, and Rome: civilizations of the ancient Mediterranean. Oxford
University Press, 2014.
Freud, Sigmund. Moses and monotheism. Leonardo Paolo Lovari, 2016.

27ANCIENT EGYPT
Gardiner, Alan H. The attitude of the ancient Egyptians to death and the dead. Cambridge
University Press, 2014.
Goldschmidt Jr, Arthur, and Aomar Boum. A concise history of the Middle East. Hachette UK,
2015.
Green, Roger Lancelyn. Tales of ancient Egypt. Penguin, 2016.
Jaspers, Karl. The Origin and Goal of History (Routledge Revivals). Routledge, 2014.
Jayawardena, Kumari. Feminism and nationalism in the Third World. Verso Books, 2016.
Killen, Geoffrey. Ancient Egyptian Furniture. Vol. 2. 2017.
MacDonald, Sally, and Michael Rice, eds. Consuming Ancient Egypt. Routledge, 2016.
McClellan III, James E., and Harold Dorn. Science and technology in world history: an
introduction. JHU Press, 2015.
McManus, Paulette M., ed. Archaeological displays and the public: museology and
interpretation. Routledge, 2016.
Montserrat, Dominic. Akhenaten: history, fantasy and ancient Egypt. Routledge, 2014.
Oppenheim, A. Leo. Ancient Mesopotamia: portrait of a dead civilization. University of Chicago
Press, 2013.
Paynter, Sarah, and Michael Tite. "The evolution of glazing technologies in the ancient Near
East and Egypt." The Social Context of Technological Change: Egypt and the Near East, 1650-
1150 BC (2016).
Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern texts relating to the Old Testament with

28ANCIENT EGYPT
supplement. Princeton University Press, 2016.
Reich, Michael. Racial inequality: A political-economic analysis. Princeton University Press,
2017.
Roberts, John Morris, and Odd Arne Westad. The history of the world. Oxford University Press,
USA, 2013.
Rosenow, Daniela, and Th Rehren. "Herding cats–Roman to Late Antique glass groups from
Bubastis, northern Egypt." Journal of Archaeological Science 49 (2014): 170-184.
Torrence, Robin, and Huw Barton, eds. Ancient starch research. Routledge, 2016.
White, JE Manchip. Ancient Egypt: Its culture and history. Courier Corporation, 2013.
Wilson, John A. The culture of ancient Egypt. University of Chicago Press, 2013.
Zhuo, Xiaolin, Barry Wellman, and Justine Yu. "Egypt: the first Internet revolt?." Boletim do
Tempo Presente 02 (2015).