1 MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING Abstract The following report consists of a comparative analysis of Standard and Target Costing and their usage in the modern day business of the entities. It begins with an introduction explaining the topics discussed in the report. After which an analysis is conducted on the effectiveness of standard and target costing as measures of planning and control. Two journal articles are selected tounderstandtheirimplementationinreallife.Thereportconcludeswithasetof recommendations deemed to be necessary.
2 MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING TableofContents Introduction..................................................................................................................................3 Features of Standard Costing as a Planning and Control System................................................3 Usage of Standard Costing by a real life company......................................................................5 Target Costing as a system of Planning and Control...................................................................7 Standard Costing and Target Costing: A comparative analysis...................................................8 Target Costing as a form of planning and control activity..........................................................9 Recommendations and Conclusion............................................................................................10 References..................................................................................................................................12
3 MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING Introduction One of the main objectives of a business is to earn sufficient profits to sustain itself in the long run. This can be done by generating sufficient revenue from its operations. However, it may always not be sufficient. Hence, companies also undertake cost reduction and cost controlling activities to ensure that they earn sufficient profits as a part of the business. As a part of the cost controlling efforts, sometimes businesses tend to use a variety of methods in calculating the costs of the business. Some of the most prominent methods of costing used over a long period of time are Standard Costing and Target Costing (Angelakis et al., 2015). A comparative study is carried on both these methods to understand their relevance in the modern day businesses and to understand their suitability in the implementation in modern day businesses. Features of Standard Costing as a Planning and Control System Standard Costing can be described as a normative method of costing used mainly in the accounting related to financial results and expenditure. A common feature of the standard costing system is the separation of revenue and expenditure on the basis of a previously agreed plan. These planned figures are also referred to as the standard figured. If the entity tends to deviate from the standard figures, such a deviation is known as a variance and is a useful measure. The variance helps in understanding if a business has been able to achieve its previously set standards or not. The results obtained during the ending period of a financial cycle become useful in the development of new standards and revising the goals for the next financial period. Budgets are one of the most used tools in a Standard Costing system and are useful in the process of both monitoring the performance of the entity and in preparing plans for a future period (Baral, 2016). Another prominent category of Standard Costing is the Integrated Standard Costing. This method tends to maintain a record of the business activities by breaking them down into much smaller
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4 MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING categories of different nature. The main purpose of Integrated Costing System is to help manage the business at a micro-level and be involved in planning from a much basic level. The major benefit provided by the usage of Standard Costing is the flexibility it allows the businesses in setting up new standards for the business. It also allows the revision of the standards by allowing the business to modify them on the basis of the changing business environment. The ways of setting up the standards are vast in number (Klychova, Faskhutdinova and Sadrieva, 2014). Any information related to the methodology of setting up standards for the business is also available from a varied number of sources. One of the businesses where standard costing is the most suitable is the manufacturing industry. This is because of the repetitive nature of the process and the relatively low rate of innovation occurring in it. The other benefits provided by standard costing is the flexibility to compare between two competitor firms belonging to a similar industry (Do et al., 2014). The aspects which are learned from the competitors can be incorporated as a part of the business processes by any entity. Standard Costing allows the flexibility to implement these learning outcomes as a part of the business. A proper balance between authority and responsibility can also be maintained through the use of standard costing. The main responsibility of the authorities is to keep a control on the check on the costs incurred by the entity as a part of its business. Their authority provides them with the power to select and alter a costing system on the basis of their needs. Standard Costing is an important tool in guiding the business on how to allocate the available resources and keep a timely check on whether they are being used in the appropriate manner or not. Despiteitsnumerousadvantages,StandardCostingsuffersfromitsownsetof limitations. One of them is its failure to accurately record and account for the overheads incurred by an entity. As the overheads are usually recorded on the basis of some other cost, they tend to
5 MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING become lower than they are and the final results turn out to be misleading. Standard Costing generally tend to focus only the targets which can be expressed in numerical terms. It is usually not concerned about qualitative aspects like the functionality and the efficiency of the products produced. Their prominence cannot be understated in the modern day business entities which give a lot of value to the opinion of the consumers and their preferences. Standard Costing is extremely efficient in terms of allocating direct costs such as Direct Material and Direct Labour. But its ineffectiveness in terms of allocating the indirect costs results in it being limited to only a particular set of industries. However, some researchers suggest that using standard costing in tandem with other widely accepted forms of costing like ABC and Absorption costing resulted in improvingtheeffectivenessoftheresultsproducedbyStandardCosting(Tsiforaand Chatzoglou, 2016). Usage of Standard Costing by a real life company In order to understand the relevance of a traditional method of costing like Standard Costing in the modern day business, a journal article based on the usage of Standard Costing in a modern day business was selected (Iafa.ie. 2020). The article’s main purpose was to conduct a study on the usage of standard costing in an Irish manufacturing company. In order to do so, it also included the aspect of the impact of change management on a modern day entity. It mainly focussed on the manner in which a traditional costing method like standard costing can be deeply embedded in an organisation while also being able to encompass the changes occurring in the business environment and the outside world. However, one aspect which was highlighted as a part of the findings is the nature of the industry selected. The company selected for the case study, Engineering Limited was involved in conducting business in manufacturing electrical products. The nature of the business is such that it has an extremely stable costing structure and
6 MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING is unlikely to implement a complex costing structure or techniques as a part of its business. Some of the otherfindingsof thepaper statetheimportanceof the reportsproducedby the management accounting department. The results of the reports of the management accounting department are extremely useful in different aspects of the business of an entity like managing costs, pricing of products and decision-making process. The accounting department suggests that there has been a significant change in their roles over the years. Previously, the department was only concerned about producing reports which detailed the various aspects of the performance of the entity. However, in the current day, the people involved in preparing cost reports of the entity are also involved in the decision making process of the entity. The responsibility of the managementaccountanthasbecome significantin analysingthe potentialimpactof any particular decision taken by them. The decrease in the span of the production cycle and the increasingly competitive nature of the environment in which the business operates results in an increased importance to the standard costing practice. They necessitate the revision of the standards on a regular basis and need the accountants to communicate the revised standards to all the parties in a quicker time span. In the given case, the organisation had also recently become a part of global group involved in the manufacture of electrical products. The demands of the head entity state that the entity is not interested in utilising summary information as a part of the financial performance of the entity. They expect the accountants to be able to explain the finer detailsoftheperformanceoftheentitywhichalsoincludestheperformancestandards established by the entity and how they are revised on a timely basis. The introduction of a modern system like SAP also enables the entity to prepare a wide variety of reports which measure the financial performance of the entity using various parameters like quality, capacity, productivity and efficiency. Despite all these changes and the increased demands on the entity
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7 MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING regarding the reports produced by it, the role of standard costing as a part of the organisation remained unchanged. This is because of some of the standard procedures used in the industry like cost plus margin and other controlling measures to protect the profit margins of the entity. The managers of the organisation strongly believe that their current standard costing system is fully capable of meeting the pricing requirements of the new products while also accurately calculating the variances, revised standards and analysing the need for additional information as a part of the business. Despite changes occurring as a part of the business, they were not significant enough to impact the existence of the business in its current form. Despite all of its limitations, the paper suggests that there is an empirical evidence of the coexistence of stability in the entity and its ability to encompass change as a part of the business. The paper suggests that an extremely conservative method of costing like Standard Costing can comfortably adjust to new changes occurring in the outside business environment without disturbing the existing structure and way of doing things of the business (Mijoč, Pekanov Starčević and Mijoč, 2014). Target Costing as a system of Planning and Control Unlike Standard Costing, Target Costing is a more modern system and can be stated as more of a cost management technique than a traditional method of costing. In this method, the cost of a product is determined on the basis of the price for which a product would be sold and the profit that would be earned from the sale of the product (Kumar, 2014). Before determining the prices of the products, a number of relevant factors like the competitor products, nature of the industry and the costs involved in the switching of the consumer are all taken into consideration. The objective of target costing comes from the realisation that the entities cannot control the selling price prevailing in the market. Hence, after taking all relevant factors into consideration, the business sets a target cost which it needs to achieve in all circumstances. It is extremely
8 MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING popular in Japan as many of the Japanese companies were the pioneers in developing the system (Hamood, Omar and Sulaiman, 2011). It is useful as a system in the initial phases of the development of a product. Hence, it is generally used in the planning stages of a product. Usually, there are four recognised phases in the process of target costing. These include defining the available parts, feature and common elements amongst products, accurately calculating the development costs of a product, estimating or calculating the target cost of a product and appropriately stating how the target cost will become a part of the goals of the business. This exhaustive process involved in setting up the target cost of a product is responsible for the effectiveness of the system. Establishing a target cost brings certain clarity to the procedure undertaken by the entity and is essential in focusing all the resources of the business towards achieving the particular goal (Sharaf-Addin, Omar and Sulaiman, 2014). Due to the nature of target costing which reduces the cost of a product in the stage of development itself, using target costing reduces the costs involved in redesigning the product in the future. Hence, there is no need for an organisation to undertake major changes to its processes after achieving a certain level of growth and development in the industry. However, the major challenge involved in the implementation of target costing is dependent on achieving the required balance between the preferences of the consumers and other factors which impact the sales of the product. There are suggestions that sometimes innovation is to be compromised for achieving the target cost set by the entity. All resources of the organisation need to be aimed at achieving the target cost set initially. A minor lapse on the part of anyone in the organisation results in the entity ending up without fulfilling its targets (DRURY, 2013).
9 MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING Standard Costing and Target Costing: A comparative analysis One of the major differences between both the costs is that standard costing is a traditional costing technique while Target Costing is more of a cost management technique. The purpose of standard costing is to suggest the maximum possible achievement of an entity if it functions optimally in the conditions available to it. However, target costing is more of a goal which the entity intends to achieve by adjusting the resources available with it and allocating them in an efficient manner (Ofileanu, 2015). While standard costing takes only the internal resources into consideration, target costing also takes the market conditions and the tastes and preferences of consumers into consideration as well. Standard Costing is more of a retrospective costing while target costing can be classified as more of a planning activity (Stone, 2014, May). Target Costing as a form of planning and control activity In order to understand the relevance of target costing in the modern day business, an article on the relevance of target costing and the incentive system of an entity was selected and there were some relevant findings about the importance of target costing through the same (Pdfs.semanticscholar.org. 2020). The company that was chosen as a part of the study in this article is Handan Iron and Steel Company (HISC). It is one of the prominent 100 enterprises owned by the state in China. Due to the increasing inflation in China, the country suspended many of the infrastructure projects and most of the entities found themselves to be less profitable than what they had intended to be. This also impacted HISC and the entity suffered severe dilemma about the next step to be taken to become profitable again. Some of the reasons for the declining profitability of the entity were the declining morale amongst the employees, disregard for quality and preferences of consumers and a significant increase in the waste generated by the entity. After much debate about the next step to be taken, the entity adopted Target Costing as a
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10 MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING part of its business procedures in the year 1991. There were some basic targets set by the entity as a part of the new process. They included improving its profitability in the already profitable markets while trying to breakeven in the markets where it was not profitable previously. The prices of the products were previously set on the basis of an internally planned price. However, this was replaced with the market price at which the products of HISC were being sold. These prices were revised in every 6 months on the basis of the recommendations of the Price Steering Committee and the maximum purchasing power prices were allocated to the subsidiaries of the business. To maintain a certain level of quality, the prices and costs involved in manufacturing goodqualityproductsandsemi-finishedproductswerealsoconsideredbytherelevant authorities. The entity also undertook the process of benchmarking where targets are set prior to conducting the business procedures to achieve them. The incentive system of the employees was also changed and new factors began to become relevant in calculating the incentives earned by the employees. Focus was also increased on the overheads and material consumption of the entity. While HISC took the important aspects from the Japanese model, it included its own relevant aspects in calculating the relevant costs of the entity. Some of them included the backward cost analysis where the costs involved in the last shipment were taken as the basis for calculating the target costing of the current period. Employees of all departments were informed about the market prices of the products and they were expected to undertake the production activities to achieve the specific cost set up previously. Personal and organisational goal contracts were handed out by the CEO to the subsidiaries and employees. Since the introduction of the measures by HISC, many firms undertook similar activities and there was a significant reduction in the costs incurred by the entity. This also helped it in dealing with the increased competition worldwide.
11 MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING Recommendations and Conclusion On the basis of the above discussion, a few recommendations can be made about the type of costing system to be used by a business. In the planning phase of a product, the target costing is an effective measure in allocating the available resources and setting up a target cost of the product. This is because of its nature which takes most of the aspects like the market prices, customer preferences and the estimated selling price of the entity into consideration. However, after the commencement of the production, Standard costing should be used to understand whether the available resources are being used to the maximum possible extent or not. These standards should be revised in a timely manner to reflect the changing conditions in the market. Standard Costing should also be used in combination with other forms of costing like ABC costing to allocate overheads in a dynamic business more effectively.
12 MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING References Angelakis, G., Theriou, N.G., Floropoulos, I. and Mandilas, A., 2015. Traditional and currently developed management accounting practices–A Greek study. Baral,G.,2016.Cost–Value–ProfitAnalysisandTargetCostingwithFuzzyLogic Theory.Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences,7(2), p.21. Do, D., Chen, C., Ballard, G. and Tommelein, I., 2014, June. Target value design as a method for controlling project cost overruns. In22nd Annual Conference of the International Group for Lean Construction, Oslo(pp. 171-181). DRURY, C.M., 2013.Management and cost accounting. Springer. Hamood, H.H., Omar, N. and Sulaiman, S., 2011. Target Costing Practices: A Review of Literature.Asia-Pacific Management Accounting Journal,6(1), pp.25-46. Iafa.ie. (2020). [Online] Available at: https://iafa.ie/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/AFGR-201.pdf [Accessed 24 Jan. 2020]. Klychova, G.S., Faskhutdinova, М.S. and Sadrieva, E.R., 2014. Budget efficiency for cost control purposes in management accounting system.Mediterranean journal of social sciences,5(24), p.79. Kumar,A.,2014.AssociationofQualityFunctionDeploymentandTargetCostingfor Competitive Market, “.International Journal of Management Research,2(2). Mijoč, J., Pekanov Starčević, D. and Mijoč, I., 2014. Investigation of the relationship between contemporarycostmanagementmethodsandimprovementinfinancial performance.Economic research-Ekonomska istraživanja,27(1), pp.393-413.
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13 MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING Ofileanu, D., 2015. TARGET COSTING FUNCTIONS.Revista Economica,67(5). Pdfs.semanticscholar.org.(2020).[Online]Availableat: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1f96/a2d5cfb63a0d798be64cdf68bb8247dbfb29.pdf [Accessed 24 Jan. 2020]. Sharaf-Addin, H.H., Omar, N. and Sulaiman, S., 2014. Target costing evolution: a review of the literature from IFAC's (1998) perspective model.Asian Social Science,10(9), p.82. Stone, D., 2014, May. Cost Accounting Systems: A Holistic View from the Top. InProceedings ofGlobalInterdis-ciplinaryBusiness-EconomicsAdvancementConference(GIBA), Clearwater Beach, Florida, USA(pp. 94-102). Tsifora, E. and Chatzoglou, P.D., 2016. The evolution of costing during the period 1985-2015: Progress or inactivity?International Journal of Business and Economic Sciences Applied Research,9(2).