Global Perspective of Healthcare - PDF

Running head: GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES OF HEALTH
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES OF HEALTH
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GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES OF HEALTH
Addiction is one of the condition in which a person is seen to engage in the use of a
substance as well as behaviour where the rewarding effect is seen to provide a compelling
incentive. This incentive forces the person to indulge repeatedly in pursuing the behaviour
despite of different types of detrimental consequences (Ogloff et al., 2017). Addiction is seen to
involve the utilisation of the number of substances that may include alcohol, inhalants, opioids,
cocaine, nicotine and many others. Researchers are of the opinion that addictive substances as
well as behaviours are seen to intensely activate different brain pathways of reward as well as
reinforcement that are mainly suspected to include the neurotransmitter dopamine. Addiction has
been considered as one of the ten social determinants of health by the world health organisation
and these social determents of health is found to have negative impacts on the health of the
natives of Australia or the aboriginals (Eliott, 2015). Tobacco smoking, alcohol use and other
drugs are indeed considered to be some of the major contributors of high morbidity as well as
mortality in the aboriginals as well as the Torres Islanders along with resulting them to lead poor
quality lives generation after generation. Therefore, this assignment will show how the social
determinants of health “adduction” as proposed by the world Health Organisation are indeed
affecting the health condition of native Australians resulting in poor quality life.
Substance use is mainly seen to be the response of different types of social breakdown
that is again an important factor that helps in worsening the resulting inequalities in health. It is
also been seen that individuals uses this mode of addiction as a mirage of escape from the
adversity as well as stress (Roy et al., 2016). However, addiction mainly is seen to make the
situations much worse resulting in various types of health disorders and poor quality life. When
the smoking rates had been noticed in the surveys conducted on the aboriginals and the Torres
Islanders Australians, it can be seen that the rate is quite high. In the year 2008, approximately

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half of the indigenous people for about 49.9% had been seen to be the current smokers. This
number is more than double the number of non-native people from the nation of Australia.
Indigenous people who are seen to live in the remote areas have a much higher rate of current
smokers that is about 51% than the indigenous people in the non-remote areas, which is about
46%. Indigenous Australians are seen to be twice in number than that of the non-indigenous
people who are seen to binge drink like that of 17% and 8% respectively (De Vertiul et al.,
2017). When comparisons are done with the non native people, it was seen that the native people
who are associated with long term drinking of whiskey is 155 but that of the non natives is 14%.
Marijuana is found to be the most common form of drug used that is used. About 51% of the
people of the native origin are seen to have used drugs of various origins with the families
accounting for about 36%. Substance abuse and addiction is seen to play a significant role in the
gap of the health status between the Indigenous as well as non-indigenous people in both life
expectancy as well as health (Charlton et al., 2017).
In order to know how addictive substances gradually became incorporated in the culture
of the aboriginals, one need to go back to the history of the times of colonisation in the nation of
Australians. If we get back to the period before colonisation, it was seen that pandanus plant,
purple orchid tress and honey, corkwood, coconuts, fermented honey and many others were the
main source of addiction to the native people. However this form of alcohol was much limited in
the years before colonisation as the absence of suitable containers as well as climatically varying
access to these resources created barriers to large scale production and thereby consumption of
the alcohol (Shahrom et al., 2017). In the year 1964, a majority of the Legislative Council
Committee member were seen to vote for the northern Territory at that time,. Due to its impact,
alcohol was made viable to the aboriginal people. Therefore, white people were the main people

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in the nation of the Australia who have introduced the non-native people to alcohol. However,
the main destruction that occurred from such situation was that they never discussed the dangers
as well as the harmful effect that was associated with that of alcohol consumption. There were
aboriginal veterans who were stated saying that after a tiresome day at work when he was
returning, he saw a white man drink beer and he thought that it might be the source which make
them powerful (Donovan et al., 2015). There the Europeans used lack of knowledge of the
aboriginals as a weapon to expose them to an addiction by which they can never develop the
strength to fight back and be the distressed class with different physical, mental and emotional
turmoil. However, there had been debates about this belief about the intent of the white people
behind introducing alcohol, but the trend of alcohol drinking had initiates theory their hands only
and this had in the modern day taken an extensive turn where they had been destroying lives of
huge number of native people (Pumarino et al., 2017). When extensive researches are conducted.
Statistical data has shown that alcohol addiction is associated with huge number of destructive
events. There was about 44% of fire injuries as well as 40% of domestic violence incidents.
There have been also evidences of about 345 of falls as well as drowning. There has been also
305 of road accidents with 10% of industrial accidents. There has been also 70% of police time
tackling alcohol crime.
Excessive addiction to alcohol has resulted the aboriginals to not only suffer from
physical disorders but also involve them in a large number of social issues. Alcohol drinking is
seen to cause deaths in large number of aboriginals due to liver as well as alcoholic liver
cirrhosis (Ross et al., 2015). It has been reported that the average age if death from the alcohol
related cause is only 35. Besides, different forms of health problems like liver diseases,
pancreatitis, and diabetes as well as some forms of cancer are also seen to be higher in the native

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people than the non-natives. Besides, there have been also evidences of violence, brawls as well
as fights. Community breakdown, less food security and many others may also take place. They
are seen to either feel lethargic to buy food or prepare food or spend their resource in buying
alcohol that affect their health as well as quality life. Family breakdown also takes place where
members tend to neglect their children and other members. Financial problems as well as social
problems like low self-esteem, lack of direction and many others take place which affect their
lives. Aboriginal Health Council of Western Australia has put forward a report the aboriginal
males are seen to be between the 1.2 to 6.3 times more likely to that of the non-indigenous
people of the nation to be hospitalised for any injuries that had resulted from assaults in
comparison to that of the non-aboriginal males (Marsh et al., 2015). In case of the native
females, the number of cases resulting from injuries from assaults is between 1.3 to 3.3 times
greater than the non-native people. Alcohol related deaths were also seen to contribute between 5
to 19 times greater than the non-native people did. This further adds to the social ass well as
familiar dysfunction as 1 in every 5 of the aboriginal related deaths around 22% is directly
caused by an argument while intoxicated. Alcohol induced suicides, alcohol induces hospital
rates alcohol induced violence are also found to be higher in the natives than the non-natives
(Baydola et al., 2015).
Tobacco smoking has been identified to account for about 12.1 percent of the total burden of
disorders among the native people in the nation of Australia. It also accounts for about one fifth
of the death that occur of the native people. Researchers are of the opinion that it is indeed one of
the most important contributing risk factor for deaths among the native men especially. A study
conducted in the year 2009 showed that principal diagnosis that occurred relating to tobacco
abuse was found to be at the rate of 3.3 per 1000 where as that of the non-native was only 0.8 per

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1000. One important finding that needs to be noted is that the tobacco smoking is mainly
described by the aboriginals as part of their culture and this cultural preferences of the use of
tobacco exposes many individuals to develop these habit among the newer generations as well.
Normalisation of smoking in the peer groups as well as families, positive attitudes of the
traditions towards smoking and smoking as coping mechanisms are some of the important
factors that aboriginals state as the reason for their taking up this habit (Martin, 2016). Many of
the aboriginals say that they need to take up the habit in order to be socially included as well as
accepted by peers and others members of the community. All such behaviours expose them to a
large number of negative outcomes not only on their health but also on the quality of lives they
lead or mental and social issues.
Close analysis of the culture of the Aboriginals show that they celebrate traditional
smoking ceremonies that have long history in the aboriginals regions. They are believed to
cleanse and thereby remove bad spirits. However, this tradition can be considered as important
but positive part of the culture but tobacco smoking at the constant rate cannot be considered a
positive part under any circumstances. An interesting study conducted had shown that if the life
expectancy of the aboriginal 15-year-old boys are considered, tobacco smoking decreased their
life expectancy by 6.5 years. Various types of health disorders are seen to affect the aboriginals.
Smoking during the times of pregnancy increases the risk of perinatal mortality, low birth weight
as well as preterm birth, congenital abnormalities like gastrochisis as well as sudden death
syndromes in infants. Smoking also results in decreased milk volume as well as shorter
breastfeeding sessions (Marsh et al., 2016). Indigenous children are seen to be involuntarily
exposed to environmental tobacco smoke at home that thereby increases their risk for respiratory
illness, ear infections, neuro-cognitive deficits, cancer as well as behavioural problems. Exposure

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from tobacco smoke from parents also exposes the children to otitis media causing hearing loss.
They are also seen to have exposed to higher prevalence of cancer, cardiovascular diseases as
well as type 2 diabetes. High blood pressure as well as high homocysteine levels mainly acts as
the indicators of the early onset effect. Aboriginals are the people who are seen to die at a much
younger age in comparison to that of the non-indigenous Australians. On an average, the native
people are seen to live for about 56 years of age as compared with that of 77 years of age of the
non-native people of the nation of Australia. Moreover, the native women of the nation is seen to
live for about 63 years in comparison to that of the non native women who are mainly seen to
live for about an average age of 83 years. Researchers have also shown that native people are
likely to die from hearts disorders as well as the vascular diseases that are nearly three times
higher than that of the rate of non-indigenous people (Munsh et al., 2016). Every two out of three
individuals with the native origin are seen to face death that can be attributed to heart disease,
vascular diseases as well as stroke. In comparison the rates is one in ten populations among the
non-native individuals of the nation. Moreover the native people are seen to be more likely to die
from native respiratory system diseases which are usually seen to include emphysema as well as
lung cancer than the non-indigenous Australians. Smoking is also seen to increase the risk of low
birth weight babies as well as sudden infant death syndromes. It remains also associated with
various socio-economic con sequences that affect the mental health and financial conditions of
the native individuals as well.
Researchers are of the opinion that addiction is one of the social determinants of health
that has many numbers of ill effects on the social life of the individuals as well as several
financial issues. It has been seen that the aboriginals. The aboriginals have to suffer immensely
due to negative impacts of smoking and alcohol from a very tender age. The stresses that result

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from such habits and behaviours in turn make them suffer in many ways as mentioned. They fall
sick and as a result they are less likely for finishing high schools in comparison to that of the
non-indigenous Australians. They are either seen to be ill or are seen to be not fit to visit schools
and education canters and thereby they tend to miss many classes. Unhealthy individuals also
feel lethargic to go to school and thereby the pleasure of addiction makes them overcome their
wish to attend schools (shahram et al., 20170. They tend to get associated with different forms of
bad habits like gambling, risky adventures and many others that cause barriers to them in
competing schools. Many of them are seen to leave school midway as addictions to substance
abuse take away their enthusiasms and zeal to get educated. Therefore they do not get good
amount of health education which otherwise would have helped them to develop good amount of
knowledge and skills by which they could have not only understood the consequences of
addiction to tobacco and alcohol but could also have understood the need to overcome the habits.
This in turn leads to decreasing of their chances of getting good jobs as their unfinished
education reduces the scope of employment. Therefore, the addiction that they have developed in
the childhood or in the adolescence impact the entire life of the native people resulting in
financial constraints. Moreover again, it can be stated that there are many adults whose abusive
drinking habits cost them their employment and in turn affects the quality of their personal life.
Moreover, such individuals are seen to be more likely to be unemployed and they tend to have
lower average weekly income compared to non-indigenous people. They tend to suffer from
different respiratory disorders that take away their ability work due to excessive tobacco
smoking (Fallon et al., 2015). Such situations mainly result them miss schools or even their jobs
when adults that make them either lose their job or make them unable to dedicate themselves to
gain productivity. Such addiction results them to be unemployed or uneducated and therefore

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they do not develop the knowledge of the importance of better living through housing and proper
physical environment. They face from financial instability either due to poor education or
employment as well as due to spending of the resources of affording the substances. They could
not live in proper housing and excessive drinking and smoking addiction cannot allow them to
afford proper hygienic houses. Moreover, many of the researchers have found that addiction
causes the individuals to live in dusty, rural as well as remote environments and they are seen to
due to poor access to clean water as well as good food. They are also seen to suffer more from
poor health and early death as compared to non-indigenous Australians.
There is an interesting connection between substance abuse as well as the factors
mentioned in the previous paragraph. Although many of the researchers have found out that the
above mentioned consequences are the result of the excessive addiction to substance abuse
another opposite connection is also found in the native people. It has been found that the native
people who have low level of education are more likely to develop addiction habits that again
lead to various kinds of issues like financial as well as social issues. Moreover, many of the
individuals who are seen to develop to be unemployed again suffers from boredom and lack of
energy in life (Cao et al., 2018). They are seen to be more addicted to alcohol and tobacco
smoking and in turn accompanied with different types of mental health disorders like depression,
anxiety as well as feeling of loneliness. Moreover, they are seen to lack financial security in their
life for which they remain exposed to various issues like mental pressure, panic attack and others
when they cannot provide a safe and quality life for themselves. In order to overcome such
feeling, they tend to take up alcohol and tobacco smoking addiction as researchers say that
addiction helps people to escape into an alternate reality where they tend to overcome the
suffering they have in their real life. Therefore, there might be a debate about whether addiction

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is the cause of different physical and mental ailments or whether addiction is the consequences
of other social determinants of health consequences. However, it is true that whether addiction is
the caue or the consequences but is indeed a social determinant of health that had not only
created a gap in the health status of individuals but also made them to go through poor quality
life socially as well as financially.
A number of activities should be taken by the government and the healthcare systems to address
the disorder. The first one would be development of healthcare services in the aboriginal; region
where appropriate primary, secondary as well as tertiary services would be provided to substance
abuse users. The care should be culturally competent so that they do not feel discriminated.
Proper health promotion campaigns should be developed to make them educated about the harms
associated with addiction as well as the different effects that are taking place on the social and
economic life (Wilson et al., 2016). It should be developed with the help of Ottawa charter so
that the professionals should cover all five key principle areas. Proper policy should be
developed which would help in handling the issue effectively.
From the entire discussion, it becomes clear that addiction, which is one of the social
determinants of the ten determinants chosen by world health organisation, had considerable
impact on the lives of the native people. They tend to result in different types of disorders like
heart disorders, respiratory issues, cancer and many other types. They also affect the quality of
lives of native people like making them to lose their jobs or remaining unemployed, incomplete
education, poor housing and many others. There has been increased number of hospitalisations
and death along with cases of violence like crimes, domestic abuse, accidents and many others.
Therefore, it is extremely important for the government as well as different health professionals

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and policy makers to develop an understanding of these social determinants of health and try
their best to help in overcoming the challenges and help people live better quality lives.

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