Greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with Water Production

This report discusses the methodology used by Tampa Bay Water for estimating GHG emissions of their operations in the production and supply of water to their customers. It also evaluates the different calculation procedures employed by TBW in the reduction of the greenhouse gases due to water production.

Patel College of Global Sustainability
Capstone Research Report
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with Water
Production
Saif Alkaabi, U56485468
July 25,2018

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 1
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with Water
Production
Master of Arts Project Report
By
Saif Alkaabi
Supervisors
Dr. Kebreab Ghebremichael
Mr. Dave Bracciano
University of South Florida
Patel College of Global Sustainability
July 25,2018

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 2
Abstract
Greenhouse gases (GHG) are detrimental both from the perspective of human
health and environmental health. Greenhouse gases affect the distribution of heat
throughout the atmosphere and these gases include the nitrous oxide, methane and
carbon dioxide and the fluorinated gases like the sulphur hexafluoride, perfluorocarbons
and hydrofluorocarbons. These compounds occur naturally but the different
anthropogenic activities of humans have led to the increase in the concentration of
these gases. The most common method of increasing the greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere is through the combustion of the fossil fuel for the purpose of generation of
heat and electricity. The purpose of the study is to assess the methodology used by the
Tamp Bay Water (TBW) for estimating GHG emissions of their TBW operations in the
production and supply of water to their customers. TBW is a regional drinking water
utility company that serves the customers of Tampa Bay located in Florida. Supplies
drinking water to areas like the Tampa, New Port Richey, St. Petersburg, Pinellas,
Pasco, Hillsborough. The quantity of water supplied is 2.5 million people and this takes
place via the government. TBW has developed an internal greenhouse gas calculator
that is based on the billing data for the purpose of water production which specifically
includes pumping of water. Energy data form the Energy Consumption Manager is
disaggregated by the sources like the Withlacoochee River Electric Cooperative, Duke
and TECO. From the data, the kWh/MGal pumped at the various facilities. TBW also
utilizes the emission factors sourced from EPA to estimate the greenhouse gas
emissions data in tons or pounds/kWh for the different sources of energy. A hybrid
framework can be applied for accounting the GHG emissions. The indirect emission can
be calculated through a top down approach and the direct emissions can be calculated
though a bottom up approach. The bottom up estimation and evaluation will be
beneficial for calculating the emission factors.

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 3
Acknowledgement
I would first like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my Dr. Kebreab
Ghebremichael for all of the help and guidance he has tent to work, I would also like to
thank Mr. Dave Bracciano for offering advice and instruaction during the research time. I
would like to thank Ms. Trista Brophy for helping to gather data from Tampa Bay Water
utility. I would like to thank professor Quiong Zhang for her support and advice for my
project.
Special thanks go to my friend Jihao who helped me a lot in finishing this project within
the limited time.
lastly, I would like to thank my father for all the support and understanding when times
were busy.

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 4
Table of Contents
Abstract...........................................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgement.........................................................................................................................3
1. Introduction................................................................................................................................6
1.1 Background.........................................................................................................................8
1.2 Problem Statement............................................................................................................9
1.3 Objectives............................................................................................................................9
1.4 Research Questions........................................................................................................10
1.5 Scope of the Report.........................................................................................................10
2. Literature Review....................................................................................................................11
i. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Guidance for Direct Emissions from Stationary
Combustion Sources:.............................................................................................................16
ii. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Guidance for Direct Emissions from Mobile Combustion
Sources:....................................................................................................................................16
iii. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Guidance for Indirect Emissions from Purchased
Electricity..................................................................................................................................17
iv. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Guidance- Direct Fugitive Emissions from
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning, Fire Suppression, and Industrial Gases:.....................17
3. Methodology/materials/methods..........................................................................................20
3.1 Methodology:.....................................................................................................................20
3.2 Method:..............................................................................................................................20
4. Research results/findings......................................................................................................22
4.1. Data interpretation of Primary Qualitative data collection.........................................22
5. Discussion and interpretation of results..............................................................................26

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 5
Recommendation...........................................................................................................................28
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................29
References......................................................................................................................................30
Appendix........................................................................................................................................36

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 6
1. Introduction
Greenhouse gases are the ones that trap heat in the atmosphere. The
greenhouse gases allow the sun's heat to enter into the atmosphere and unhindered as
a shortwave energy. This heats up the surface of the earth and the same energy is re-
radiated in the form of longwave energy into the atmosphere which is absorbed by
these greenhouse gases. This results in trapping of the heat energy in the lower
atmosphere. There are many greenhouse gases that occur in the atmosphere, such as
nitrous oxide, water vapour, methane and carbon dioxide, where there are other gases
that are synthetic. There are other gases that are man-made and like the
chlorofluorocarbons, Sulphur hexafluoride, perfluorocarbons, and hydrofluorocarbons.
The water utility practices are closely associated with the activities of greenhouse gas
emissions (Morris,Paltsev& Reilly, 2012). Water management is required to meet the
increasing demand for the change in climate and in several of the cases results in the
additional energy usage. There are several regulations in the USA regarding the
monitoring of the greenhouse gas emissions but there exists a gap between the energy
and the water management. Energy and water are closely linked and this is called as
the energy-water nexus, the term captures the aspects of the energy and water
interaction. Water is a very important component of energy production and this includes
the fossil fuel extraction like biofuels, hydroelectric power and cooling. At the same time,
the energy produced is used for treating, supplying and using water. The rise in the
levels of the greenhouse gases and the environmental impacts is associated with the
various changes in the environment like the severe heat waves, acid rain, drought and
intense weather conditions (Samimi&Zarinabadi, 2012).
Greenhouse gases have got severe environmental impacts on the
environment due to climate change associated with it. Rise in temperature due to
increase in the GHGs in the atmosphere often results to various changes on the
planet earth. It can result to drought leading to lack of water, intense rain which is
acidic as well as severe heat waves. Additionally, there can be melting of the ice and
glacier leading to the rice of ocean levels causing tsunami. All this have got negative
impacts to both human society as well as environment. GHGs gases do not only

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 7
have harmful effects on human health but also on the climate (Williams et al, 2014).
Due to the high trap-ability of the GHGs gases, there continuous production
increases warming of the earth leads to increase in the emergence of diseases,
deaths and extinction of various organism.
Additionally, increases GHGs gases leads to the reduction of the fresh water for
consumption depletion of ozone layer. According to WHO, consumption of water that
is contaminated by the GHGs can leads to irritation of the respiratory system
causing respiratory problems, reduction functioning of the lungs and aggregate
asthma as well as impairment of the body system of defence. Additionally,
environment impacts include reduction in the growth rate, increases susceptibility of
plant to diseases, injury and premature mortality of plant tissues as well as reduce
survivability of the plants. Therefore, there is need to use safe and clean energy for
use in transportation, electricity and production of water (Searchinger et al, 2012).
The emissions from the water utilities when evaluated showed that various activities
have led to the emission of nitrous oxide, methane and carbon dioxide. The
greenhouse gases are produced from the mobile combustion and onsite combustion
and the emission are caused due to the usage of chilled and hot water by the water
utility, production of steam and electricity (Anthony & Tanju Karanfil, 2013).
The purpose of the study is to is to estimate the Greenhouse gas emissions of
the Tampa Bay Water operations in the production and supply of water to their
customers. The Study will focus on addressing the research questions posed by TBW to
assess their methods of estimating GHG emissions form their operations. The
significance of the project is to ensure that methodology used by the TBW is accurate.
The scope of the study is mainly emphasising on the TBW and its operations that are
based on the environmental protection agency data. It has been found that the TBW
has started maintaining sustainable energy management systems and strives to
accurately estimate the amount of the greenhouse emissions that are associated with
the water production.
Since the year 1990, a steady increase has been noticed in the emission of the
greenhouse gas. In the year 1990, the United States experienced an increase in

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 8
greenhouse gas by 2 percent (US EPA, 2018). Due to certain changes in the economy,
fuel process and other factors the level of the emission increases in a year. Greenhouse
gases occur naturally and the increase in the concentration of the gases increases due
to the anthropogenic activities (Shailesh, 2013). Freshwater is essential not only for
human survival but also for the drinking and other activities like the farming. It has been
indicated by Huang and Chen (2017) that supply of water is going to reduce in the near
future due to the increased effect of greenhouse gases. The problem of water scarcity
starts by taking into consideration the distribution of water on the earth. Studies have
indicated that the 98 percent of water is salty and thus only 2 percent of water is
available for human consumption and for other uses. It is, however, important to note
that of the 2 percent, 70 percent exists in the form of glaciers and ice. Of the 2 percent,
only 30 percent of water is groundwater and 0.5 percent of water is surface water which
is found in lakes and rivers. Additionally, only 0.5 percent of water is available in the
atmosphere. Researches have shown that the due to the increase in temperature
caused by the increased levels of greenhouse gases cause global warming and this
leads to the melting of polar ice caps. The melting of the polar ice caps has led to an
increase in the sea level and it has effects on the water supply (Heller et al., 2018). A
study conducted by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) indicated the fact that
greenhouse gases like the nitrous oxide and methane are they are highly soluble in
water and this can be detrimental for the human consumption (Huang & Chen, 2017).
The atmospheric lifetime of the greenhouse gases that are produced by the different
industries varies and gases like carbon dioxide have a lifetime ranging from 50 to 200
years. Methane has a lifetime of about 12 years and nitrous oxide has a lifetime of 114
years. The greenhouse gases like methane and nitrous oxide have the heat-trapping
capability and both methane and nitrous oxide are the potent greenhouse gases that
can increase the atmospheric temperature to a great extent. This has a negative impact
on the stratosphere, biosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. Thus, there is an urgent
need of clean energy at the affordable rates that can substitute the fossil fuel and
ensure the protection of the environment (Zhou, 2014).

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 9
1.1 Background
TBW has developed an internal greenhouse gas calculator that is based on the
billing data for the purpose of water production which specifically includes pumping of
water. Energy data frorm the Energy Consumption Manager is disaggregated by the
sources like the Withlacoochee River Electric Cooperative, Duke and TECO. From the
data, the kWh/MGal pumped was calculated at the various facilities. TBW utilized the
emission factors sourced from EPA to estimate the greenhouse gas emissions data in
tons or pounds/kWh for the different sources of energy. In order to estimate the
reduction in the greenhouse emission from the operations, TBW used information from
the water conservation reports that were used in estimating the reduction in pumping
energy. The three main water reduction activities include the reduction in the amount of
the hot water usage in the residential buildings and commercial pre-rinse spray, water
conservation activities or the source substitution (reclaimed water).
1.2 Problem Statement
This proposal will assess the methodology used to estimate the GHG calculation
and the emission factors applied and compare them against practices used elsewhere.
Based on the assessment, the research may develop some recommendations to
improve the methods of GHG estimation. The study is based on evaluating the different
calculation procedures employed by TBW in the reduction of the greenhouse gases due
to water production.
1.3 Objectives
Greenhouse gases are the main reason due to which the global warming has
increased to a large extent and it has led to several undesirable changes in the
atmosphere and has also led to the steady decline of the species. Due to the ill effects
of greenhouse gases, both the human society and the environment are negatively
affected and thus there is a need to develop the mechanisms to control the impacts.
This research will highlight the method employed by the TBW in the greenhouse gas
emission. The study will assess if the standardized or the average could be used if the
data of electric consumption is not available from the local sources. For example, if the
data from the energy sources are not available in time then the average or the

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 10
standardized data can be used. The main objective of the study is to carefully assess
the greenhouse calculations that are made by the TBW and also to evaluate the
methodology in comparison to the commonly used greenhouse gas calculation. The
evaluation procedures will also include the assumptions made, the emissions factors
that are used in the calculation, the greenhouse gas calculations from other places and
suggest recommendations for the TBW calculator. The study aims to evaluate the
impact of the greenhouse gases on the climate over a period of time; to examine the
greenhouse gases that are associated with the production of water; to develop the
methodologies that can be used in the calculation of the greenhouse gas emission that
is associated with the energy use during the production of water.
1.4 Research Questions
This study will examine the following questions:
 Are the methods for creating kWh used per production point being transformed
correctly?
● Are the methods for determining GHG emissions per electricity used at sites
being calculated correctly?
● What standardized or averaging could be used if electric consumption data isn't
available from local sources (For example the TECO data did not get processed
in time for TBW to use for 2017).
● What can alternative (standard) GHG emissions data be substituted for EPA
emission factors if they are not up to date?
1.5 Scope of the Report
. The prime scope of the research is to analyse the greenhouse gas which is
emitted during the activities like the water production, electricity generation as well as
the transportation sector. The main area where the research will be carried out will be
the TBW. The production of the various gases like the nitrous oxide, methane and
carbon dioxide will be highlighted and the project will take a maximum of three months.

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 11
The scope of the study is to assess the methodologies employed by TBW in evaluating
and estimating the greenhouse gas emission from its water-related activities. The study,
on the other hand, will not include any discussion on the integration of methods of
greenhouse gas reduction.
The highlights the emissions from steam, electricity, and other sources of energy
that are used by the energy. The scope 3 indicates the various consequences that have
occurred due to the excessive operations from the different sources in an organization.
Here, different resources have been introduced in the case to analyse the different
greenhouse gas sources. Logistics and business travel, third-party distribution and
employee commuting are included within these sources. The study also mentions the
emission from the production of purchased goods, emission from the sold products and
many more sources of greenhouse gas
2. Literature Review
Green House Effect:
Green House Effect implies physical properties of nature that allow trapping
thermal emission within a stipulated zone. The intensity of this natural phenomenon
depends on the layer that traps the thermal emission by blocking the penetration of the
energy high wavelength (Arslan, Cigdemoglu& Moseley, 2012). However, the term
Green House comes from an agricultural technique that allows trapping the thermal
radiation within a glass-covered area situated in an extremely cold atmosphere for
agricultural purpose. The major reason behind this natural phenomenon is the
penetration of thermal energy and its cardinality with the wavelength. When initially the
light wave coming from an external source penetrates the greenhouse cover layer, it
has very high frequency and small wavelength. According to Varma and Linn (2012),
after the absorption, the wave loses the energy and decreases its frequency that
resultantly increases its wavelength (V=f*l, where v is the speed of the wave, f is the
frequency and l is the wavelength). Now the wave with high wavelength becomes
unable to be free by penetrating the greenhouse layer that enables the greenhouse to
trap the thermal energy within it. As a result, the temperature becomes increased. As
per Cook et al., (2013), the atmosphere of earth acts same as this greenhouse effect

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 12
that allows sustaining the surface temperature at 150 C. Without this atmospheric
greenhouse effect the surface temperature of the earth would be -180 C.
Properties of Greenhouse Gas:
The reason behind the greenhouse effect of the earth atmosphere is the
presence of certain gases such as Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4),
Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), Water vapour (H2O), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Ozone (O3) and
Hydrofluorocarbons (Ma et al., 2013). The basic principle to be a greenhouse gas is
having more than one or two atoms in a molecule that can successfully trap the infrared
wave within the atmosphere. Non-greenhouse gases such as Nitrogen (N2), Oxygen
(O2), Argon (Ar) are not greenhouse gas due to their molecular structure featured by
only one or two atoms of the same element to build the molecule. This physical feature
does not enable them to absorb infrared or react against the vibration. However, gases
like Carbon monoxide (CO), Hydrogen Chloride (HCL) absorb the infrared because of
the presence of atoms from an individual element in the molecule. As opined by Zhang
et al. (2012), this molecular structure allows them to block the high wavelength wave to
penetrate through them. However, these gases are very unstable in the atmosphere
because of their high reactivity and solubility. Apart from that, some gases have an
indirect radiative effect that causes due to their chemical reaction with other gases in
the atmosphere. As an example, CO or carbon monoxide is a weak greenhouse gas
that traps only the IR (Infrared) at shorter wavelength because of their single vibrational
band (West et al., 2013). However, CO gets oxidized in presence of water vapour and
becomes CO2 that is a strong greenhouse gas. On the other hand, both carbon
monoxide and Methane reacts with OH radicals and makes a reversible cycle reaction
causing an indirect greenhouse effect. At the same time, destruction of non-methane
volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) in the atmosphere can produce Ozone, which is
a good greenhouse gas (Harvey, 2016).
GHG emissions from water utilities:
Water is not directly involved in generating greenhouse gas emission while there
is an indirect impact of water utilization on overall greenhouse emotion in our
atmosphere. As per Rosa and Dietz (2012), the water processing lifecycle causes more

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 13
than 15% of greenhouse gas emotion in which 10% is emitted indirectly through the
utilization of electrical power and other machinery utilization. To understand the role of
water utilities in Greenhouse Gas emission the understanding of water process life cycle
is essential. Initially, the water is pumped out from different natural and artificial water
resources that consume a high amount of electricity. The clean water then distributed to
the residential, agricultural and industrial area. The usage of water causes liquid waste,
which is collected by a pumping system that again consumes a high amount of
electricity (Arslan, Cigdemoglu& Moseley, 2012). Then the wastewater recycling
treatment purifies the wastewater into the clean consumable water. This treatment
procedure consumes electricity while during the water treatment a large amount of
greenhouse gas like carbon dioxide, Nitrous oxide, methane and other are emitted.
Apart from the when the water used for an agricultural purpose it produces greenhouse
gas like Methane. The electrical consumption throughout the water process cycle is
significantly high. To produce this amount of electricity the power plants produce a large
amount of Carbon dioxide and other strong greenhouse gas (Fearnside&Pueyo, 2012).
Apart from that, from the initial pumping and storing to final recycling the equipment,
which are used for executing the procedure, emit a huge amount of greenhouse gases
like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, Chlorofluorocarbon and others. However, the
methane produced from the agricultural operation is not controllable, while the other
part of the after cycle can be altered to reduce the greenhouse gas emission.
Greenhouse Gas measurement:
According to Anderson, Hawkins and Jones, (2016), the water and wastewater
industry uses 4% of the total domestically electricity produced in the United States. This
huge amount of energy consumption has made the wastewater industry one of the
highest electricity consuming industries in The United States. On the other hand, the
required energy to produce potable water is increased because of the degrading source
ware quality and changing regulations that need more electricity consuming techniques.
The Life Cycle Assessment studied covering the three areas of discussion namely the
emission from the operational state of utility lifecycle which is the leading contributor of
greenhouse gases indirectly, the utility of equipment in operational phases and during

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 14
the chemical process in treatment plant (Zhang et al., 2012). Throughout the process,
the treatment use is the only direct producer of the GHG as well as the second largest
source of environmental impact. Throughout the process, the consumed electrical
power is generated by emitting 31 million metric ton of carbon dioxide equivalent (Co2-
eq). Among many other public service operations, water processing causes 31% of
GHG emission (Bolaji&Huan, 2013). At the same time, the change in climate has a
huge impact on the natural sources of water considering both underground and surface
water on the planet. The changed chemical factors in natural water sources require
additional treatment and recycling procedure consuming a huge amount of additional
power while emitting a considerable amount of greenhouse gas.
Power consumption measurement:
As discussed earlier the water pumping and recycling or treatment procedure
requires a huge amount of electricity. To reduce the electrical consumption,
identification of major procedures that consume the majority of the electricity is essential
(Zhang et al., 2012). As per the report of Electrical Power Research Institute or EPRI
from 1997 to 2000 the average energy use was 1.6 KWh per 1000 gallon of water.
However, from 2010 the consumption of the average energy for 1000 gallon of water
has been increased and has become 1.9 KWh per 1000 gallon. This increased level of
consumption has increased the utilization of fossil fuel and emission of GHG in power
plants. In the treatment procedure, only the Ozone Disinfection process causes 0.4 kWh
per 1000 gallon energy consumption (Drake, 2014). The table 1 (appendix) describes
the required energy for water process cycle
Method of inventory of GHG emissions:
The emission inventory is a process of measuring the existing and possible level
of emission while determining the appropriate scopes to resist such occurrence. The
inventory method of Greenhouse Gas is mainly regulated by the IPCC format by the
United Framework Convention on Climate Change or UNFCC (Fearnside&Pueyo,

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 15
2012). The method of inventory covers the GHG emission because of the combustion
activities as well as the transport, manufacturing and construction industries. The
combustion activities refer to the mechanical activities that use fossil fuel to generate
adequate energy. The Combustion process executed in both industrial and residential
area; however, the amount of emission from these two sources is different. While it
comes to determining the emission due to transport, the emission from the military
operation, aviation industry, rail, vehicle transport and water transport are considered as
the major sources. As opined by Hamit-Haggar (2012), Apart from mentioned causes,
technical faults, leakages, evaporation loss, ventilation, flaring and accidental emission
cause additional emission of greenhouse gases, especially, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and others.
The purpose of Inventory of GHG reflects the process of execution of it, which
are described below:
 Determination of the goal and the purpose of the inventory process conceding
the inventory information and target audience
 Determination of the boundary and metrics of the existing as well as potential
measurement procedure considering both the direct and indirect emission
 Data collection, analysis to identify, and keeping record the numerical
representation of several parameters associated with Greenhouse Gas
 Numerical and statistical analysis of Greenhouse Gas quantities and convention
to carbon dioxide and its equivalents depending on the Global Warming Potential
(GWP)(Bolaji&Huan, 2013)
 Interpreting the outcomes from the inventory method considering the percentage
of changing in Greenhouse Gas
GHG emission inventory protocols:
Greenhouse Gas Inventories can be understood as a form of emission inventory.
The inventory includes both natural as well as anthropogenic emissions which can be
used to develop atmospheric models (USEPA, E, 2015). These models can then be
used by policymakers to make strategies and policies that can reduce the emissions
and also track the progress of the policies or strategies. Apart from the sources of

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 16
emissions, the greenhouse gas inventories also include carbon skinks which are
associated with the removal or sequestering of carbon from the atmosphere
(Subramanian et al., 2015)
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) prepares a yearly
report known as the Inventory of US Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks (inventory)
which helps to track the greenhouse gas emission by the US classified on the basis of
their sources, economic sectors and greenhouse gases liberated, thereby providing a
comprehensive account of all human-created emissions of greenhouse gases (such as
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride,
perfluorocarbons and nitrogen trifluoride) (Heede, 2014). Specific protocols and
guidelines exist for creating Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories (Janssens-
Maenhout et al., 2015). The EPA uses 4 such categories, namely:
i. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Guidance for Direct Emissions from Stationary
Combustion Sources:
This provides the guidelines for creating inventory for the emissions of GHG such as
methane, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide from stationary or non-transport combustion
sources such as dryers, boilers, heaters, kilns, thermal oxidizers, furnaces, ovens, or
any devices that are used for the combustion of carbon-rich fuels (such as biomass) or
waste materials (or waste-derived fuels) and helps in the calculation of greenhouse gas
emissions from these sources (Marchese et al., 2015)
Calculation of the Greenhouse Gas Emissions is done in two main methods:
Direct assessment and evaluation of input Fuel. For direct assessment, the
Continuous Emissions Monitoring System (CEMS) Method is used which measures the
pollutants liberated into the air from the exhaust of industrial sectors and combustions
(Sloan, 2014). The Fuel Analysis Method is another way to calculate the emissions of
carbon dioxide using information specific to the fuel or default emission factors
(epa.gov, 2018a).

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 17
ii. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Guidance for Direct Emissions from Mobile Combustion
Sources:
This provides the guidelines for the creation of an inventory of greenhouse gas
emissions from the combustion of fuels in various categories of combustion engines or
mobile devices. Categories of sources include On-Road Vehicles, Non-Road Vehicles,
Waterborne Vehicles, Rails and Air Vehicles. The Greenhouse Gas emission is
calculated separately for carbon dioxide and for methane and nitrous oxides (Lamb et
al., 2015). It utilizes separate sets of equations for the calculation of each type of
emission. The steps for calculating the emission is step 1: Selecting the proper equation
developed on the type of fuel used. Step 2: Determining the amount of fuel used in the
combustion. Step 3: Determining the equation inputs which are needed to calculate the
emissions and Step 4: Calculating the emissions using the proper equation with the
consumption of fuel and other inputs in the equation. The accuracy of the calculations is
increased by incorporating specific information for each vehicle such as fuel type, fuel
usage, distance travelled, economy, type of vehicle and technology for controlling
emissions (epa.gov, 2018b).
iii. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Guidance for Indirect Emissions from Purchased
Electricity
This provides guidelines for the creation of emission inventory for emissions from the
various processes in an organization but is mainly given off from by sources owned by
other organizations and is thus considered ‘indirect emissions' (Ji et al., 2016). These
indirect sources include usage of electricity, steam, heat or cooling systems that are
delivered to an organization from independent entities, localized grids or district energy
systems through direct connections to the organizations using these energies.
Greenhouse gases are produced to create power and heat which are then supplied to
the consumer organizations. The emissions produced depend upon the type of power
used to produce the energy and the guidelines provide a method to calculate such
emissions. The calculation is done by determining the amount of energy purchased,
determining the emission factors and then calculating the emissions (epa.gov, 2018c).

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 18
iv. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Guidance- Direct Fugitive Emissions from Refrigeration,
Air Conditioning, Fire Suppression, and Industrial Gases:
This helps to calculate ‘fugitive emissions’ from different types of emissions and
processes such as fire suppression, air conditioning, refrigeration and buying and
selling of industrial gases (Cristofanelli et al., 2018). The greenhouse gases usually
measured in this method include Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), hydrofluorocarbons (HFC)
and other ozone-depleting substances. The guidelines addresses specific aspects such
as the emissions from the users of air conditioning equipments and refrigeration
systems (such as domestic and household systems, chillers, heat pumps, mobile air
conditioning systems, refrigerated transports, retail food refrigeration, cold storage
warehouses, industrial refrigeration systems and commercial systems), emissions from
portable or fixed fire suppression systems and direct emissions from purchased
industrial gases (Cascini et al., 2016). The process of calculating emission includes
preparing an inventory of equipment, determining installation emissions, operating
emissions, disposal emissions and the total emissions (epa.gov, 2018d).
Emission factors from different sources such as EPA, IPCC:
Emission Factors can be understood as an identifying value that can be used to
compare the amount of pollutant created into the atmosphere and the function that
causes the production of that pollutant. It is generally expressed as the pollutant's
weight per unit weight/ volume/ distance/ duration of the process that is causing the
pollution, for example, kg of particulate matter emitted per mg of fuel burned.
Discussed in table 2 and 3 (appendix) are the emission factors outlined under EPA and
IPCC.
Impact of water conservation on GHG emission:
Conservation of water has long been considered as an effective social and
institutional adaptation towards reducing the negative effects of global warming.
Reducing use of water (and limiting its wastage) also helps to limit the consumption of
energy that is used for the extraction, processing and distribution of water, and this
concept is gaining popularity in several countries (Nair et al., 2014). Additionally, energy

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 19
is also needed for the management of wastewater and processing it for reuse or
recycling. By limiting the use of water, the need for recycling also decreases thereby
further helping to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases. This is also a significant
strategy considering the limited amount of fresh/drinkable water that is present on earth,
which can be safeguarded through the more efficient use of water and lesser wastage
(Sapkota et al., 2015).
The energy savings that can be achieved through water conservation includes
direct savings in the energy that is used to heat water (which can be calculated from the
specific heat capacity of water and the rise in the temperature of water due to heating),
embedded energy savings to make chemicals to process or purify water and also by
reducing the carbon footprint associated with the usage of water (Bartos & Chester,
2014). According to the California Energy Commission, water conservation programs in
urban areas can help to achieve 95% savings from 2006-2008 energy savings
programs at 58% of the expense (Escriva-Bou et al., 2015). Studies show that about
116 million pounds of carbon dioxide are produced each year due to the collection,
distribution and treatment of drinking water, which is equivalent to the number of
greenhouse gases produced by 10 million cars. The connection between energy
expenditure and water use is strongest in the drier parts of the United States such as
the Southwest where a significant amount of energy is needed for transport water
(Hardin et al., 2017).
According to a report by the Los Angeles Times, the historic drought in San
Diego County have helped to understand that reduction in the urban use of water has
resulted in a lesser use of electricity and emission of greenhouse gases. This shows
that by conserving water and preventing its wastage can help to reduce the emission of
these gases. During the droughts in California, the state government restricted the use
of water by about 25% from June 2015 to February 2016, which helped to save a total
of 922,543 MW Hr of energy which is sufficient to power about 135,000 households for
1 year (latimes.com, 2018).
Sokolow et al. (2016) studied the effects of water conservation strategies in
California on energy conservation efforts. Their study showed that using recycled water

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 20
can help to conserve water, provide significant health benefits and also significantly
reduce the consumption of energy and GHG emission caused by the urban use of
water. Additionally, by reducing the emission of GHG and the usage of energy (for
extraction, treatment and distribution of water) in urban areas can also help to mitigate
the effects of global warming and climatic change caused by these factors. Similarly,
studies by Zhou et al. (2013) showed that water conservation enabled about 70%
savings in energy in Changzhou, China, and additionally, 13.9% of energy savings
towards sustainable water management.
3. Methodology/materials/methods
One of the main chapters of a research process is the research methodology
which helps a researcher to identify the main research methods that are needed in the
study in order to develop a credible and systematic approach towards the study. The
chapter of research methodology helps to develop the quality of the research process
by identifying the best research method that is suitable for the needs of the study and
ensure that they are aligned to address the objectives of the research as well as the key
issues identified in the research (Brinkman, 2017). In such a context, therefore, it is vital
that the available research methods be analysed by the researcher in order to identify
the tools which are most appropriate for the research, presently conducted. In the given
research, the main focus is to identify the GHG that is produced by Tampa Bay, and
how they impact the environment over a period of time, and to develop a methodology
to calculate the emission of GHG due to the use of energy in water production. The
study also aims to identify the link between water conservation and reduced utilization
of water with a reduction in the emission of greenhouse gases due to a reduced
utilization of energy by the water production plant, such as the Tampa Bay Water. Using
the data, it would be possible to quantify the amount of emission that can be reduced
with the conservation of each unit volume of water.
3.1 Methodology:
This section determines the methodology of research which can be of three types:
qualitative, quantitative and mixed. In the current study, a mixed approach is utilized
which combines aspects of both quantitative and qualitative studies (Creswell &

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 21
Creswell, 2017). The present study involves the collection and analysis of data from
Tampa Bay Water and also incorporates information from employees working at Tampa
Bay Water. Also, will use current and past GHG emission reports and data from TBW
and other reports from water utilities elsewhere. Search for data from EPA sites and
other sources.
3.2 Method:
Emissions are quantified by the Tampa Bay Water, produced while pumping
water to be distributed to the member governments. Using this methodology, it would be
possible to identify the relationship between a reduction in the demand of water (and
hence an increased conservation of water) with the reduced use of energy by the
Tampa Bay Water, and also to understand how such approach will support a reduction
in the emission of Greenhouse Gases.
For the methodology, the data is collected from the electrical usage by the
pumping facilities at Tampa Bay Water between 2016, October and 2017, September.
The Energy Consumption Manager application used by the agency is used for the data
collection. Data for electric consumption was only partially available, due to which the
total consumption of electricity was based on the production of water. The application
can provide data with great accuracy and also is up to date because of the automated
collection of the data by the application from the network. This helps to provide great
reliability to the data and hence an effective resource of information.
The data that is above listed is used in combination with the EPA emission data
that is obtained from the website of Clean Energy eGrid and EPA's Air Market's
Program Data. The most up to data for the regional power plants was for 2014 on the
Clean Energy eGrid website. Data available at the AMPD website is fairly updated;
however, the data only highlights the emission data for methane, carbon dioxide,
sulphur dioxide, and nitrous oxide. Data from the EPA website provides data of only
methane and carbon dioxide from various sources of fuel, many of which can be used
for generation of power from water (heating water). The two resources (IPCC and EPA)
are used to compare the data of the preceding year's emissions with the current year's
usage.

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 22
The data on emissions obtained from EPA website is converted into pounds (lb)
and then added to each energy source while to some of the power in megawatt hour
(mWh) is transformed to kilowatt-hour (kWh) to calculate emissions in the pound, per
unit of energy in kilowatt hour used. The calculated emissions (lb per kWh) that are
obtained from each energy source is then multiplied to energy usage in kilowatt hour by
Tampa Bay Water to calculate the net annual emission of greenhouse gases from the
Tampa Bay Water for water delivery systems. The emissions (in lb per kWh) is then
multiplied by kWh per MG created to determine the emission per MG created in lb. For
each of the emission type and source of energy, these steps are replicated.
In order to determine the emission of the greenhouse gases, using the data from
water conservation, such as the quantity of water that was saved was collected by the
member governing bodies, through the 5-year conservation programs. The amount of
water saved (in Million Gallons or MG) is then multiplied by the amount of methane,
nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide produced (in lb per MG), after which each of these
valued are multiplied with 365 (for each day of the year) to calculate the net emission for
each million gallons of water saved per year. The total reductions in the emissions per
million gallons of water saved in MG/year or ton/year are then converted to metric tons
from short tons. Dividing these valued by 4.7 metric tons the number of emissions can
be calculated for each year.
4. Research results/findings
4.1. Data interpretation of Primary Qualitative data collection
This study tried to address the four primary research questions that were posed
by TBW based on the approach they used to calculate GHG emissions.
Are the methods for creating kWh used per production point being transformed
correctly?
The kWh here is determined by the calculation of the production of electricity.
The whole process of production involves estimating kWh/MG and then the result is
either multiplied by gallons or the gallons pumped. The result is averaged and the
production of kWh per year is recorded. This may be inaccurate and hence the methods

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 23
are not 8iproperly transformed to achieve the desired efficiency. There exists Green
House Gas emissions, an evidence that the transformation of electricity is not according
to the designated standards. These emissions emerge from the production of electricity
to its consumption. More emissions eventually affect the production cycle of electricity
hence the transformation becomes faulty.
Using the data from Tampa Bay Water, it is evident that they harvest the power
usage conditions from e-grid. Most importantly, the table gives out a million gallons of
water generated and directed from Tampa Bay Water (Barbeta et al.2015). It is quite
clear that the individuals applied the correct methods.
The two and three scopes are the main sources of Tampa Bay Water GHG, this
results in the existence of a small-scale clear point of production (Wani et al.2017). It is
important to account for the indirect emission in scope according to GHG rules. Firstly,
there is a missing transmission loss from the point of the power station to the facility
point. Most of the essential energy is consumed. On the other hand, Tampa Bay Water
applied chemicals to generate fresh water. However, the applied chemicals also form
the portion of the indirect emission which to some existence is missed. Thirdly, the
water facilities are formed by the sludge management system. In contrary, Tampa Bay
Water did not account it. They applied the appropriate methods to come up with khw
that is directed at every production point. It is quite clear that Tampa Bay Water, shown
an appealing maturity for responding to their GHG emission calculation. However, the
method is not fully final.
Are the methods for determining Greenhouse gas emissions per electricity used at sites
being calculated appropriately?
The calculation in determining the Green House Gas emissions for the electricity
used in sites passes through a number of stages and determinations. In the first stage,
collection of data relevant to calculation of the emission is done. The data collected
include the energy consumption collected from the Energy Consumption Manager,
power billed commercially provided by the recognized public power providers’ agencies
and the operating statistics retrieved from all supervisory control agencies’ facilities. A
research on fossil fuel mix is also done for each utility basing the research on various

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 24
EPA data (USEPA, 2017) The overall calculation done uses the above collected data
including the amount of water produced and pumped. The methods involved in the
calculations are correct and accurate since they show feasible reduction in emissions
through the reduction of water demand and electrical usage (Shailesh, 2013). However,
in some instances, there are minor assumptions and approximations that may mislead
the overall results. The approximations never alter much the final determination from the
calculations. The determination of the calculations was made correctly since it gives out
accurate information on the GHG emission. Green House Gases determination can also
be made through the analysis of the collected data and information plotted in graphs
which will help to predict future occurrences of the emissions.
The member governments five-year plan provides Tampa Bay Water with
information regarding the amount of water saved and GHG emission reduction which
comes from the reserved water. After that, CO2, N2O, and CH4(Ibis/mg) are multiplied by
the MG saved after which every result is multiplied by 365 days in order to know the all
the number of emissions reduction for saved MG in tons per year.
The electrical usage from Tampa Bay Water provides data for the methodology
applied in this area. The data ranges from the facilities used in pumping water for the
period of the year 2017. The data that is produced as emissions is directly changed to
pounds (Ibs) and all of them are added to every source of energy. On the other hand,
the sum of the megawatt-hour (MWh) that is generated is converted to kWh then
applied with the sum of emission in order to find emissions Ibs per kWh. The kWh for
water in Tampa Bay is multiplied by the total emissions in pounds per kWh ( Dargahi et
al.2016). This is done to every energy that is produced. The result of the multiplication
shows the annual sum of greenhouse gas from Tampa Bay Water. On the significant
part, in order to know the emissions per MG that are generated in pounds, the pounds
for every kWh emissions are multiplied by kWh for every MG. all the above steps need
to be done for every process.
It is imperative to determine the number of emissions that come with every
electricity usage when calculating scope 2 emissions. Policymakers and the projects are
the two core methods companies apply in order to transport emissions from greenhouse

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 25
gas to the final use. There exist emission factors that the consumer greenhouse gas
applies for every unit of consumption relating to scope 2. The factors must always be
completed before transportation to the end user. The first factor from the guide is the
location - based method and the approach that makes use of the market position.
It is clear that the approach of the market shows the electricity emissions that the
organizations are at a position and able to come up with, however, location -based
approach shows the average intensity of the emissions from the power table which
takes in energy. Consequently, the location - based approach can be used in any place
(Maupin et al.2014). It clearly shows the relationship between the collective consumer
demand for electricity and the emissions from the locally based power production point.
What averaging as well as standardized are used in cases where the data of electric
consumption is not available from the local sources?
There are many standardized sources that could be used in place of the electric
consumption data. In this case, the TECO data did not get processed in time for the use
in coming up with the results for Water Year (WY) 2017. In case of such an incident, we
could instead use the data obtained from the general supply which is the used electricity
as measured from the grid without consideration of controlled load (Management
Association, Information Resources, 2015). Off peak controlled residential hot water
data can also be used, mainly obtained from hot water storage systems. Data could
also be obtained from small-medium, non-residential sites for instance those non-
residential consumers with low voltage use over a larger period of time usually
approximated to be using below 160 MWh annually. Considerations could also be made
for the non-residential consumers with an average of 160 MWh or higher. In addition,
data from the non-residential high voltage consumers, like big industries large hospitals
and universities and transport infrastructure, would be used in the overall calculations.
Weather variations should also be included since the consumptions are strongly
weather influenced (Santamouris, 2010).
Auto-generators surveys could also provide substantial information regarding the
electric consumptions. The surveys could be undertaken by a group or an interested
party performing statistics about the consumption and usage of electricity. Also, auto

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 26
generators could play a great role in providing data since it provides the summary of the
distribution of units and percentage losses involved during the whole process of
transmission of electricity. Single electricity market operators provide information about
the export and import of electricity in every half of an hour. Exelon provides monthly
data regarding the transmission and loses of electricity in the main National Grid.
What can alternative (standard) GHG emissions data be substituted for EPA emission
factors if they are not up to date?
If the standardized emission data is not available, then product inventory need to
be prepared for the products which are emitting it. Post that the sale number and the
current usage numbers need to be quantified and an average need to be prepared for
the emission pattern. One of the other possible ways would be to look at historical
trends and then see the growth on the products which are doing the emission. This can
give a fair idea of what is the emission.
Some of the standardized Green House Gas emissions data that could be used
include the environmental changes to be observed for a longer period of time,
approximately two years or more (NRC, 2010). Also, the production of electricity from its
initial stages to the supply and usage of it should be observed and how it affects the
environment in relation to the emissions of gases to the environment. The number of
electric companies should also be taken into consideration while determining the
emissions of the Green House Gases since they play a great role in the conservation of
the environment through the controlled emission of the gases that could last longer in
the atmosphere for approximately 2 to 10 years (Smick, 2006). Data from relevant
agencies could also be utilized since they are majorly tasked with the observation and
control of Green House Gas emissions. The data given would help in the analysis and
determination of the gases and hence EPA would not be totally relied on.
Equivalently, calculations could be made based on the previous experiences to
help predict the future occurrences of the Green House Gas emissions. This is
achievable through construction of graphs to show trends. However, these calculations
may not give accurate information required but can give close estimates that could be

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 27
relied on. Information can also be gotten from the power grid concerning the
consumption of electricity and possible effects to be encountered by the Green House
Gases as a result of the production and usage of electricity.
5. Discussion and interpretation of results
Florida’s gubernatorial administration in the year 2007 had issued three
executive orders and this has been done to address the change in climate. In the year
2009 to 2012, data showed that there is a marked reduction in the (-109,388 metric
tons) in the greenhouse gas emissions from the state agencies in comparison to the
baseline years (2006-2007). The reduction in the greenhouse gas emission is noticed
due to the several factors, water efficiency in the government agencies. The data from
the Tampa Bay Water along with the encouragement of the state environmental
organizations has led to the development of reduction methodology and the emission
methodology by the Tampa Bay Water. These are discussed and described below and
quantifies emissions associated with the water production. Calculation of the data is
vital in order to demonstrate the secondary benefits arising from the reduced usage of
water in the Bay area and an increase in the greenhouse gases is detrimental to the
environment and the human health.
Thus, due to the TBW ‘s and the commitment of the Member Government in
maintaining the sustainable practices has led to the adoption of the energy policy in the
year 2016 to increase the agency energy use efficiency. The policy includes a variety of
commitments that the Tampa Bay Water is to provide the safe and clean water that is
made through the sustainable and the efficient practices. The creation of the energy
policy is the first step towards the development of an Energy Management system the
emphasises in improving the energy consumption, energy efficiency, energy use and
energy performance.
According to the Congressional Research Service in the year 2010, it has been
estimated that 12.6 percent of the nation’s energy is utilized in the heating, pumping and
treating water (Copeland, 2014). Considering the supply side, pumping of water can be
considered as the main energy consumer. This includes the delivery of water to the
consumers, pumping of untreated water to the treatment plants. In each step kilowatts

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 28
of electricity are used for supplying water. Thus, a reduction in the water usage leads to
less utilization of energy and thus less water is required to be treated and pumped. A
methodology was developed by Tampa Bay to calculate greenhouse gas emission
which is associated with the energy utilization in the production of water. The
methodology developed by Tampa Bay is based on data collected using the Energy
Consumption Manager (ECM). The ECM can be described as the Enterprise Data
Management System database for collecting data on consumption of energy and it is
developed by TBW. An integrational system is placed on the commercial power billing
data which is collected from 3 power providers and it includes the operation data and it
includes the energy use, equipment time and flow rate. This information is collected
from the agency’s data acquisition system and the agency’s supervisory control for all
the agency’s facilities. The data on the fossil fuel mix for each of the utility data are
determined and research is based on the different types of the EPA data and the
contacts are made available via the electric utilities. The water demand and the
management programs are consistent with the goal of the of the agency that
emphasizes the energy costs and the energy consumption.
The EPA emission data are collected from the Tampa Bay Water for the year
2016 and this includes the electricity usage for the purpose of pumping water, amount
of the water pumped and produced. The data compiled depict the possible reduction in
the emissions and it has been made possible through the reduced electrical usage and
the reduced water usage.
Recommendation
A hybrid framework can be applied for accounting the GHG emissions. The
indirect emission can be calculated through a top down approach and the direct
emissions can be calculated though a bottom up approach. The bottom up estimation
and evaluation will be beneficial for calculating the emission factors. An agency can be
set up that will establish, maintain and implement an Environmental Management
System (EnMS) which will work according to the ISO 5001 international standard. If
Tampa Bay Water also implements this EnMS then it can continue to reduce the overall
energy costs and energy consumption while at the same time maintaining the water

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 29
reliability and water quality. This, in turn, will reduce the amount of the greenhouse gas
emission released due to the electric utilities. The efficiency can be increased by
accomplishing the effectiveness of the operations; energy performance improvements in
the modification of the agency's facilities, processes, systems, equipment; implementing
energy improvement projects; energy efficient services and the products. Replacing the
standard pre-rinse spray valves with the more efficient valves can reduce the water
usage. As it is important to note that the heating water is energy intensive and if energy
is required to be saved then there is a need to reduce the activities that demand energy-
intensive operations.
Conclusion
The study here focuses on a company called Tampa Bay Water and the greenhouse
emission resulting due to its operations with the water utilities. After the State
environmental agency adopted some serious policies, it was obligatory for TBW to work
on its measurements and implementation of strategies of greenhouse gas reduction. It
has been found that the usage of water by the residents for various purposes has
resulted in to release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. It is, however,
important to note that in order to mitigate an environmental issue it is always necessary
to quantify the degree of the problem. Thus, to mitigate the several issues, TBW came
up with calculations of the greenhouse gases from a single household and also from its
operations. The TBW calculated the greenhouse gas emission in association with the
production of water. The TBW calculated the data which included the nitrous oxide
emissions, methane and carbon dioxide from a single family that uses hot water. The
calculations emphasize on the reduction hot water usage which resulted in the reduction
of greenhouse gas. The emission of the greenhouse gases that are produced by the
usage of hot water at the homes, the percentage of indoor hot water usage and the data
on energy intensity. The analysed data shows that a savings of 24.51 MGD resulted for
the year 2017. Also, it is important to note that there is a reduction of 24,000 tons/year
of carbon dioxide equivalent. Methane reduction has been noted to be 681 lbs/year and
nitrous oxide has been noted to be experiencing a reduction of 506 lbs/year. The

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 30
emission reductions have been found to be 1,656,523 lbs of carbon dioxide, 35 lbs of
nitrous oxide and 240 lbs of methane. All the reductions remained avoided because of
the conserved water through St. Petersburg, Hillsborough County and Pinellas County's
pre-rinse rebate program.

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 31
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Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 36
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Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 37
Appendix
Table 1: the required energy for water process cycle
Treatment Plant Production
Process Step 1 MGD 5 MGD 10
MGD
20 MGD 50
MGD
100
MGD
Raw Water Pumping 121 602 1205 2410 6027 12055
Rapid Mixing 41 176 308 616 1540 3080
Flocculation 10 51 90 181 452 904
Sedimentation 14 44 88 175 438 876
Alum Feed System 9 10 10 20 40 80
Polymer Feed System 47 47 47 47 47 47
Lime Feed System 9 11 12 13 15 16
Filter Surface WashPumps 8 40 77 153 383 767
Backwash WaterPumps 13 62 123 246 657 1288
Treated WaterPumping 1205 6027 12055 24110 60273 120548
Chlorination 2 2 2 2 4 8
Residuals Pumping 4 20 40 80 200 400
Thickened SolidsPumping N/A N/A N/A 123 308 616
Total 1483 7092 14057 28176 70384 140685
Table 2: Emission Factors from EPA (source: epa.gov, 2018e)

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 38
Fuel Emission Factors
g
CH4/Ton
g N2O/Ton
Anthracite Coal 276 40
Bituminous Coal 274 40
Sub Bituminous Coal 190 28
Lignite Coal 156 23
Mixed Coal for commercial sector 235 34
Mixed coal for electrical power
sector
217 32
Mixed Industrial Coke 289 42
Mixed Coal for Industrial sector 246 36
Coal Coke 273 40
Municipal Solid Waste 318 42
Petroleum Coke 960 126
Plastics 1216 160
Tires 896 118
Natural Gas 0.00103 0.0001
Blast Furnace Gas 0.000002 0.000009
Coke Oven Gas 0.000288 0.00006
Fuel Gas 0.004164 0.000833
Propane Gas 0.000055 0.000252
Butane 0.31 0.06
Butylene 0.32 0.06
Crude Oil 0.41 0.08
Ethane 0.2 0.04
Ethylene 0.17 0.03
Heavy Gas Oils 0.44 0.09
Isobutene 0.3 0.06
Kerosene 0.41 0.08

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 39
Propane 0.27 0.05
Table 3: Emission Factors from IPCC (source: ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp, 2018)
EF ID IPCC 2006
Source/Sink
Category
Gas Value Unit
15276 1.A - Fuel
Combustion
Activities
CARBON
DIOXIDE
42.83 TJ/kt
15277 1.A - Fuel
Combustion
Activities
CARBON
DIOXIDE
46.89 TJ/kt
15278 1.A - Fuel
Combustion
Activities
CARBON
DIOXIDE
42.5 TJ/kt
15279 1.A - Fuel
Combustion
Activities
CARBON
DIOXIDE
29.27 TJ/kt
15280 1.A - Fuel
Combustion
Activities
CARBON
DIOXIDE
30.07 TJ/kt
15281 1.A - Fuel
Combustion
Activities
CARBON
DIOXIDE
29.27 TJ/kt
15282 1.A - Fuel
Combustion
Activities
CARBON
DIOXIDE
24.11 TJ/kt
15283 1.A - Fuel
Combustion
Activities
CARBON
DIOXIDE
26.31 TJ/kt

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 40
15284 1.A - Fuel
Combustion
Activities
CARBON
DIOXIDE
27.53 TJ/kt
15291 1.A - Fuel
Combustion
Activities
CARBON
DIOXIDE
26.26 TJ/kt
15292 1.A - Fuel
Combustion
Activities
CARBON
DIOXIDE
26.54 TJ/kt
110069 1.B.1.a - Coal
mining and
handling
METHANE 11.0 -
15.3
m3/tonne
110071 1.B.1.a - Coal
mining and
handling
METHANE 15.3 m3/tonne
110077 1.B.2 - Oil and
Natural Gas
METHANE 2 870 -
13 920
kg/PJ of oil
and gas
produced
122971 1.B.2 - Oil and
Natural Gas
METHANE 364 +/-
677
kg CO2e/well,
GWP=24
122972 1.B.2 - Oil and
Natural Gas
METHANE 8604 kg CO2e/well,
GWP=24
110075 1.B.2.a - Oil METHANE 290 - 4
670
kg/PJ of oil
produced
110078 1.B.2.a - Oil METHANE 110 - 1
666
kg/PJ of oil
refined
110076 1.B.2.b - Natural
Gas
METHANE 39 590 -
104
220
kg/PJ of gas
produced
110079 1.B.2.b - Natural
Gas
METHANE 59 660 -
116
kg/PJ of gas
consumed

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 41
610
122965 1.B.2.b - Natural
Gas
METHANE 0.83 Mg/well
completion
flowback
event
122966 1.B.2.b - Natural
Gas
METHANE 1.1 Mg/unloading
event
122967 1.B.2.b - Natural
Gas
METHANE 33900 scf/well
122968 1.B.2.b - Natural
Gas
METHANE 24100 scf/event
122969 1.B.2.b - Natural
Gas
METHANE 9650 scf/event
122970 1.B.2.b - Natural
Gas
METHANE 1260 scf/event
Emission caused due to residential hot water use
Considering the fact that production of clean water involves emission of
greenhouse gasses, the TBW calculates the percentage of methane, notorious oxide
and carbon dioxide from typical single family residential hot water use. In order to
determine the greenhouse gas emission calculations are used. For determining the
greenhouse gas emission that are produced by the residential hot water, the estimate
percentage of the usage of the same is categorize and gathered along with the intensity
of the energy. The categories of hot water include showers, baths, hot water and
washing of cloths, dishes and faucets. The method for calculation includes calculation
for each hot water category. The indoor gallon per capita per day for each of the
categories is multiplied the average person per SF household.
How energy is associated with water production?

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 42
According to a survey, 12.6 percent of the global energy is used to heat, treat
and pump water. However, amongst the three actions, pumping water to treatment plant
can be consider as the method that consumed the highest amount of energy. The
process of pumping generally involves pumping untreated water to treatment plants and
then delivering treated water to the consumers. Kilowatts of electric energy are required
in each and every step that is involved in supplying pure water to the community. Thus,
it can be clearly understanding that reduction in the usage of water is one of the best
ways to save electric energy since less usage of water means less amount of energy
will be conserved.
Apart from usage of a huge amount of energy, pumping of water also involves emission
of a huge amount of greenhouse gas. Considering the fact that greenhouse gasses
imposes a highly negative impact on the environment it is crucial to calculate the Green
House Gas emissions related to the energy usage in water production.
Emission associated with the Residential hot water usage:
The TBW calculated the greenhouse gas emission in association with the
production of water. The TBW calculated the data which included the nitrous oxide
emissions, methane and carbon dioxide from a single family that uses hot water. The
calculations emphasize on the reduction hot water usage which resulted in the reduction
of greenhouse gas. The emission of the greenhouse gases that are produced by the
usage of hot water at the homes, the percentage of indoor hot water usage and the data
on energy intensity. The unit of the energy intensity is measured in terms of kilowatt
hour per million gallons (kWh/MG). The hot water categories include the faucets,
dishwashers, hot water used for washing clothes, showers and baths. For each of the
hot water category, indoor gallon per day (gpcd) is calculated (Mayer et al., 1999). The
indoor gpcd for each of the category is multiplied by the single-family household in order
to estimate the usage of water by the single-family household. The result is then
multiplied along with the usage of hot water to find the water use by the single-family
household account in gallons. The intensity of energy is calculated in terms of kWh/MG
for each of the categories of water and is divided by 1 million to find the kilowatt-hour
per gallon (kWh/gal). kWh/gal for each of the water category is multiplied by a ratio

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 43
accounting for the adjustment of water temperature difference average occurring in the
Tampa Bay region ((Mayer et al., 1999). The total amount of the hot water used by the
single family for each of the hot water categories is then multiplied by kWh/gal to find
the average kWh used by each of the family and also the type of the hot water used.
The numbers obtained for each of the hot water categories is then multiplied by the
respective percentage of hot water use to find the nitrous oxide, methane and carbon
dioxide in pounds that are emitted hot water usage per day (table 10)
Emissions associated with commercial pre-rinse spray valves:
TBW developed a methodology in order to calculate the amount of the greenhouse
produced by the standard pre-rinse spray valves and the reduction in greenhouse
emission is noticed due to the usage of more efficient spray valves. A pre-rinse spray
valve uses 2.92 gpm and it is used for an approximately 40 minutes a day and it totals
116 gallons of water that are used per day (US EPA, 2018). Efficient pre-rinse spray
valves for this scenario is considered to be 1.28 gpm. The efficient spray valves operate
for a slightly longer period in comparison to the standard counterparts which averages
55 minutes per day usage. Thus, this amounts to 74 gallons of water to be used by
using the efficient valves. The hot water used for the per spray valve is from the efficient
and standard valves are taken to be 100 percent (Gauley, 2005).
The total water usage per valve per day for the efficient valve and the standard
valve are multiplied by the kWh/gal. To frame the kWh/gal calculation, the intensity of
energy in kWh/MG is taken from the Residential End Uses of Water Study Update and
this is divided by one million in order to calculate the kWh/gal. The result is then
multiplied by the ratio of 35/62 to make the necessary adjustments needed to account
the temperature difference between the average water supply temperatures used in the
REUS2 study and the water supplied by the Tampa Bay Water. The total amount of
water used per valve per day in terms of gallons is multiplied by the kWh/gal to calculate
kWh used per valve per day. The KWh used per day is multiplied by the carbon dioxide
lbs per kWh to find the lbs emitted per valve per day. Carbon dioxide lbs per kWh are
calculated using the calendar year 2015 following the U.S. EPA air pollutant emission
occurring from the Tampa Bay area power stations. In order to find the lbs per valve per

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 44
day, the KWh used per valve per day is multiplied by the nitrous oxide and the methane
lbs per kWh (Table 11). The data required for calculating the nitrous oxide and the
methane come from the calendar year 2014 EPA eGrid data (US EPA, 2018).
Emissions Report Calculations:
Note: 1MWh =1000 kWh; 1 ton (short) = 2000 lbs
Table 3 – WY 2017 Electrical Annual Totals for Tampa Bay Water.
WY 2017 Facilities Electrical Annual Totals
Location MGY Pumped KWh/MG
(pumped)
MGY Produced kWh/MG
Produced
Progress
Energy 13,436.35 608.31 8,370.46 976.47
TECO 145,493.07 912.73 39,792.32 3,337.21
WREC 24,698.83 695.80 14,704.15 1,168.74
Total 183,628.25 861.27 62,866.93 2,515.70
Source: Data based on Tampa Bay Water records:
Note: MGY = million gallons per year
Table 4 – WY 2017 Calculations for Tampa Bay Water.
Location
Gallons
Pumped/Gallons
Produced
Average MGD
Produced kWh/Day Used kWh/Year Used
Progress
Energy 1.61 22.93 22,393.09 8,173,477.00
TECO 4.61 109.02 363,823.35 132,795,521.60
WREC 1.68 40.29 47,083.26 17,185,388.57
Total 2.92 172.24 433,299.69 158,154,387.17
kWh/MG produced = kWh/MG pumped * gallons pumped /gallons produced
Process energy= 37 kWh/MG
TECO= 502.58 kWh/MG

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 45
WREC= 67.68 kWh/MG
Table 5 –Emissions Data from Tampa Bay Area Power Stations.
Location annual
gross load
megawatt-
hours
(MWh)
used(2016A
MPD Data )
Annual CO2
tons (2016
AMPD Data)
Annual Net
Generation
(MWh)
(2014eGrid
data)
Annual CO2 tons
(2014 eGrid data)
Annual N2O lbs
(2014eGrid data)
Hillsborough
County
Big Bend
Power Station
(TECO)
7,426,950.0
0
8369382.105 10,127,150.00 11,542,681.27 370,766.47
H.L. Culbreath
Bayside Power
Station
(TECO)
8,209,317.0
0
2,487,065.3
0
3,524,715.00 3,051,493.28 11,294.19
Pinellas
County
P.L. Bartow
(PE) 6,906,748.0
0
2,440,536.8
1
6,807,182.97 3,153,716.47 11,758.8
Pasco County
Anclote (PE) 3,463,462.0
0
2,189,350.2
0
2,433,908.00 1,592,244.72 6,007.99
Putnam
County
Seminole
Electric Co-op
136 (WREC)
7,801,586.0
0
5,617,103.4
4
7,593,188.03 7,846,275.47 284,099.45
Hardee
County
Hardee Power
Station
(WREC)
824,270.00 23,399.50 373,254.00 204,577.27 750.33

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 46
Note: this is a baseline data table for emissions
Table 6 –Emissions from Tampa Bay Area Power Stations.
Note: For each of the emission source, the total emission (lbs) is divided by kWh in order to
produce the emission lbs/kWh, and this is used to calculate the emissions by the electric source.
Emission data are averaged and it is based on the percentage of the total electricity produced by
each family.
Table 7 – Emissions from Water Produced in WY2016.
Locatio
n
CO2
lbs/kW
h
N2O
lbs/kW
h
CH4
lbs/kW
h
CO2
lbs/year
N2O
lbs/year
CH4
lbs/year
CO2
lbs/per
MG
N2O
lbs/per
MG
CH4
lbs/per MG
Progress
Energy
0.892920
58
1.92259E
-06
1.92055E
-05
5786212.65 12.45857 124.4535 863.284 0.001859 0.018568
TECO 1.388624 0.000028 0.000195 96437631.3 1943.579 13538.92 2890.719 0.058259 0.122849
WREC 1.307813 0.000036 0.000246 27616057.2 755.0358 5195.549 1652.343 0.045176 0.310864
Total 129839901 2711.073 18858.92 2286.842 0.04775 0.332158
 Calculate lbs of Pollutant Per Year
kWh/MG produced * average MGD produced = kWh/day
Location
CO2 lbs/kWh (2016 AMPD
Data )
SO2 lbs/kWh (2016 AMPD
Data )
N2O lbs/kWh (2014 eGrid
Data)
Hillsborough County
Big Bend Power Station (TECO) 2.253787 0.001673 0.000037
H.L. Culbreath Bayside (TECO) 0.605913 0.000004 0.000003
TECO Weighted Average 1.388624 0.000797 0.000028
Pinellas County
P.L. Bartow (Progress
Energy) 0.706711 0.000004 0.000002
Pasco County
Anclote (Progress Energy) 1.264255 0.000006 0.000002
Progress Weighted Average 0.892921 0.000005 0.000002
Putnam County
Seminole Electric Co-op 1.439990 0.001141 0.000037
Hardee County
Hardee Power Station (WREC) 0.056776 0.000000 0.000002
Withlacoochee River Electric
Cooperative (WREC)* 1.307813 0.001032 0.000036

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 47
kWh/day * 365 days/year = kWh/year
kWh/year * x lbs CH4/kWh = x lbs CH4/year
kWh/year * x lbs N2O/kWh = x lbs N2O/year
kWh/year * x lbs CO2/kWh = x lbs CO2/year
 Calculate lbs of pollutant per MG
(lbs/year / 365 days)/average MGD produced
Calendar Year 2016 Emissions Data and WY 2017 Water Savings
MGD
Saved
CH4
(lbs/mg)
N2O
(lbs/mg)
CO2
(lbs/mg)
Total CH4
reduction
for MG
saved
(lbs)/yr
Total
N2O
reduction
for MG
saved
(lbs)/yr
Total CO2
reduction
for MG
saved
(lbs)/yr
Total CO2
reduction
for MG
Saved
(tons)/yr
Total CH4
reduction
for MG
saved
(tons)/yr
Total N2O
reduction
for MG
saved
(tons)/yr
Total CO2
reduction
for MG
saved
(tons)/yr
Total 24.51 0.05 0.0542 5202.31 691.9 519.34 31,923,397.70 23,270.34 0.2269 0.2426 23270.34
Table 8 – Reductions in Greenhouse Gas Emissions Due to Conserved Water.
Table 9 –Estimated Hot Water Requirements, Energy Intensity, and Greenhouse Gas Emissions
for Residential Hot Water Use.
Water
Use
Category
%
ofHot
Water*
Energy
Intensity
kWh/MG
Indoor
Per
Capita
Water
Use
(gcd)**
Average
Persons/
SF Acct
in
Region
Water
Use/type
per SF
Acct in
Region
(in gal)
Total
hot
water
use/SF
Acct
(in
gal)
kWh per
gal (using
energy
intensity
from the
REUS2
study
kWh
per
gal***
kWh
used per
average
SF
Acct/hot
water
use type
CH4 lbs
emitted/ho
t water
use
type/day
N2O lbs
emitted/h
ot water
use
type/day
CO2 lbs
emitted/
hot
water
use
type/day
Bath 59% 90,887 1.6 4.32 2.5 0.09 0.05 0.13 0.000025 0.000004 0.266570
Clothes
Washer 20% 154,045 8.2 22.14 4.4 0.15 0.09 0.39 0.000075 0.000011 0.784928
Dishwash
er 100% 80,524 0.9 2.43 1.3 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.000011 0.000002 0.115827
Faucet 57% 538,808 10 27 15.4 0.54 0.30 4.68 0.000910 0.000131 9.542171
Shower 66% 621,573 10 27 17.8 0.62 0.35 6.25 0.001215 0.000175 12.746014
*Data source for percentage of hot water and energy intensity for water use category: 2014. DeOreo W., Mayer P., Dziegielewski B.,
Kiefer J. Residential End Uses of Water Study Update. Water Research Foundation. Page 193.
**Data Source for indoor per capita water use: 2014. DeOreo W., Mayer P., Dziegielewski B., Kiefer J. Residential End Uses of Water
Study Update. Water Research Foundation. Page 193.
***The Residential End Uses Study Update found that, on average, water is heated by 62 degrees Fahrenheit for typical hot water use. The
same study reveals that Toho, FL heats their hot water by an average of only 35 degrees F. We use 35/62 multiplied by the energy
intensity for the adjustment in water temperature.Efficiency water heater 90% (high efficiency means the number is conservative). Max
efficiency of water heaters 96%.
Note: the calculations for kWh per gal and kWh per average single family usage of hot water is
based on the kWh used by Tampa Bay Water to produce water in the WY 2016.

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 48
Table 10 – Estimated Hot Water Requirements, Energy Intensity, and Greenhouse Gas
Emissions of Pre-Rinse Spray Valves.
Water Use
Category
% Hot
Water*
Energy
Intensity
(kWh/MG)**
Avg
GPM/
Valve*
**
Avg Daily
Use/
Valves (in
min.)
Total Water
Use/
Day/Valve
(in gal)
kWh/
Gal
kWh/Gal
(adjustment
for
temperature
difference)
kWh Used
per
Valve/Day
CH4 lbs
Emitted/
Valve/
Day
N2O lbs
Emitted/
Valve/
Day
CO2 lbs
Emitted/
Valve/ Day
Standard
Pre-Rinse
Spray
Valves 100 21,000 2.92 39.6 115.63 0.021 0.011854839 1.3708 0.000262 0.000038 2.834728
Efficient
Pre-Rinse
Spray
Valves 100 21,000 1.28 54.6 69.888 0.021 0.011854839 0.8285 0.000159 0.000023 1.713310
*Assumes 100% hot water use. Source: (2005) Region of Waterloo Pre-Rinse Spray Valve Pilot Study Final Report. Veritec Consulting, Inc.
**From May 2009. Griffiths-Sattenspiel, B. and Wilson, W. The Carbon Footprint of Water. The River Network. http://www.rivernetwork.org/resource-library?tid=All.
*** Source: Tso, B. 2005. Pre-Rinse Spray Valve Programs: How are they really doing? SBW Consulting, Inc.
Note: The calculations for kWh per gal are based on the kWh used by the Tampa Bay Water to
produce WY 2016.
Table 11 –Savings Based on Member Governments’ Pre-Rinse Spray Valve Rebate Programs
2016.
Member
Total #
of
rebates
(1996-
2017)
Savi
-ngs
rate
per
day
(in
gal)
Total
gallons
saved/day
(gpd)
kWh/
Gal*
Total
kWh
saved/
day
CH4
lbs
saved
/ day
N2O
lbs
saved
/ day
CO2
lbs
saved/
day
CH4
lbs /gal
N2O
lbs /gal
CO2
lbs /gal
CH4
lbs/
year
saved
N2O
lbs/year
saved
CO2
lbs/year
saved
St.
Petersburg
PRSV
rebate
program 357 400 142,800 0.02 2,199.12 0.42 0.06 4,547.6
0.020604
4.23243E-
07
0.031846254 153.65 22.06 1,659,890.
Pinellas
PRSV
program 562 137 76,994 0.02 1,185.71 0.23 0.03 2,451.9
0.020604
4.23243E-
07
0.031846254 82.84 11.89 894,969.
Hillsborough
PRSV rebate
program
14 103 1,442 0.02 22.21 0.0043 0.0006 45.92
0.020604
4.23243E-
07
0.031846254 1.55 0.22 16,761.64
*Energy intensity for pre-rinse spray valves is 21,000 kWh/MG. This information is found in May 2009. Griffiths-Sattenspiel, B. and Wilson, W. The Carbon
Footprint of Water. The River Network. Www.rivernetwork.org. page 18. 21,000 kWh/MG is divided by 1,000,000 to find kWh/gal, then is multiplied by
the water temperature differences between the averages found in the REUS2 Study and the value for Toho, FL. The Residential End Uses Study Update found
that, on average, water is heated by 62 degrees Fahrenheit for typical hot water use. The same study reveals that Toho, FL heats their hot water by an average
of only 35 degrees F. We use 35/62 multiplied by the energy intensity for the adjustment in water temperature.
612.91
78467
Thus, from the above-analysed data, it can be inferred that a savings of 24.51
MGD resulted for the year 2017. Also, it is important to note that there is a reduction of

Gas Emission Associated with Water Production ALKAABI 49
24,000 tons/year of carbon dioxide equivalent. Methane reduction has been noted to be
681 lbs/year and nitrous oxide has been noted to be experiencing a reduction of 506
lbs/year. The emission reductions have been found to be 1,656,523 lbs of carbon
dioxide, 35 lbs of nitrous oxide and 240 lbs of methane. All the reductions remained
avoided because of the conserved water through St. Petersburg, Hillsborough County
and Pinellas County's pre-rinse rebate program. As for an example, the combined water
conservation related emissions reduction is equivalent to removing approximately 5143
passenger cars from the road for a time period of one year (US EPA, 2018).