ADHD and its Causes

This article provides an overview of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), including its different forms and levels of severity. It discusses the impact of ADHD on brain development, the heritability of the disorder, and the possibility of outgrowing it. The article also explores the symptoms and impairments associated with ADHD.

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Section 1: Summary of Articles
Article 1
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a disease that manifests itself in different
forms and levels. The disorder can be manifested at different levels of severity such as small,
medium and large. Everybody has once experienced ADHD symptoms but individuals with
ADHD have more chronic and impairing problems. Studies have shown the existence of a
significant difference in brain development and connectivity amongst children diagnosed with
ADHD against those without the disorder (Shaw et al., 2012a). Both cases have a similarity in
the development of most parts of the brain. However, in the ADHD group, some sections of the
brain that are essential for self-control take approximately 3-5 years to mature.
ADHD is highly heritable;25% of children with ADHD have one of the parents with the same
condition, and 30% have a sibling with the disorder. The study by Hawi et al. (2015) found out
that there was a heritability index of 0.75; a clear indication that ADHD is significantly caused
by inherited vulnerabilities which are caused by multiple genes. It is not ones liking that he or
she is born in a family with ADHD vulnerabilities, but just as the bible says in Ecclesiastes 3:1
“To everything there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heaven”, meaning that
the victims or relatives may not understand the reason for the disorder in their family but have to
believe that there is a reason and it is a good reason based on Romans 8:28. The good news is
that there is a possibility of 30% of the children with the disorder that they might overgrow the
disorder in their adolescence (Shaw et al., 2012b).
ADHD is a complex syndrome with a range of symptoms because it is characterized by a number
of impairments. ADHD symptoms may be manifested during the preschool years, and become

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more evidenced during elementary school or middle school level. Other children express
symptoms of the disorder in high school after they have moved away from home and have to
independently face challenges in life. Therefore, there are no specific symptoms for ADHD
because similar symptoms such as feeling low or unhappy are observable in those without the
disorder. However, ADHD victims will be noticeably, persistently and noticeably be impaired by
such symptoms. However, the common symptoms include difficulties with motivation,
disorganization, problems with sleep and concentration among others, which have a substantial
effect on executive function.
Article 2
There has been an increasing trend in the suspension and expulsion of preschool children both in
private and public schools. A survey conducted by the U.S. Department of Education (2018) in
2013-2014 found out that 47% of African American preschoolers were either suspended or
expelled and yet they only accounted for 19% of preschool admissions. There are possibly four
major reasons to explain this trend. First, the preschoolers aged 3 or 4 years exhibit disruptive or
violent behaviours because of the new social environments in school. However, this situation is
further aggravated by caregivers who do not understand this as normal behaviour and labels them
as violent and end up calling their parents to pick up their children or recommends medical
intervention. Such a decision about the child sends a wrong message to the child. According to
the book of Proverbs 22:6, the bible points out that a child’s behaviour is determined by his or
her upbringing. As much as the preschool suspension is blamed on racism, parents cannot escape
the blame. This implies that a disciplined child will seldom become violent or disruptive.
Secondly, the prevalence of preschool suspensions can be attributed to implicit racial bias against

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children. The teachers have a preconceived idea regarding African American children when
expecting behavioural problems.
Additionally, African American teachers also do expect a higher standard of conduct among
African American children than the white. This has led to the conclusion that African American
boys are just born bad. The use of corporal punishment in schools has also been attributed to
incidences of preschool suspensions. The rate of preschool suspension is twice higher in district
schools with corporal punishment than those that use an effective approach to redirect
unbecoming behaviour. However, the Bible encourages discipline or chastening as one way of
redemptive discipline according to the book of Proverbs 13:24. Though it has recently been
referred to as “corporal punishment”. Perhaps it is due to the ban on the use of rods in schools
that there is an increase in indiscipline cases even among preschoolers. Lastly, private schools
have high rates of expulsion because they highly discriminate against families of colour due to
lack of accountability and credible data. The current state of indiscipline among youths has its
foundation in poor parenting and lack of discipline in schools right from preschool, and the only
long-lasting remedy can be borrowed from the old saying that “an old tree cannot be bent”. This
is in agreement with the book of Proverbs 22:6 which recommends child discipline as a
determinant for adult behaviour.
Article 3
Most of the schools in the U.S. experience different forms of separateness. The students are
separated based on their ability, and teachers justify this approach as effective in enabling the
teachers to provide students with the most appropriate instructions fitted to their level. For
instance, students from low income and racially different families attend most of the public

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schools whereas those from wealthy and fortunate settings attend nearby schools (Tomlinson, &
Javius, 2012). However, recent research shows that school segregation is to a great extent
determined by race and economic status, with learners in higher-level classes receiving quality
education and performance than their counterparts in lower-level classes (Dobbie, & Fryer Jr,
2014).
However, this kind of approach contravenes the fact that the human brain is extremely malleable
and that people can in most of the times outperform other people’s expectations for them. This
makes the segregation mechanism used in schools to be poor predictors of success in life and
doesn’t accurately determine one’s ability in the right context (Dweck, 2015). Humanity is
created differently and not even the most identical twins think and act the same way. The Bible
also indicates that each of us is a unique creation (Psalms 139:14) with varying abilities and
talents (Ephesians 4:11). Moreover, such segregations promote selfishness among the students
because it creates “us versus them” attitude and as a result, no group comes to understand and
value each other. Studies have also indicated that very few students who excel academically
often have educational experiences that inspire them in life. ‘Teaching up’ is an example of a
strategy developed to be used by teachers to ensure that such experiences are enjoyed by all
students irrespective of their backgrounds. Teaching up approach is based on seven principles
aimed at creating a classroom environment which ensures equality in access to excellence.
These principles are aimed at creating an environment that is flexible and supports learning by
everyone. They appreciate the fact the human beings were created differently for a purpose and
its normal and desirable. Human beings have to be different because they are shaped by different
cultures, needs, interest and views, thus making it imperative to understand the learning profiles
of the students for effective instructional planning and delivery.

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Article 4
Response to Intervention (RIT) is a methodical and deliberate teaching strategy that assists
prevent nondiagnosed children from being recommended for special education services and
avoid needless labels. It is an educational approach with stepwise interventions for preschoolers
in authentic environments, enabling the teachers to intervene early. The program encourages
teachers to clearly and succinctly differentiate the extent of the need to match the individual
needs of the child (Buysse & Peisner-Feinberg, 2013). The RTI approach has been tested and
proved out to be successful in K-12 classrooms in dealing with children having learning
disabilities literacy problems in very economical and flexible ways (George, George, Kern, &
Fogt, 2013). Early childhood division has also appreciated the use of the effectiveness of the use
of the RTI approach in teaching because of their desire for every child to succeed. Each child is
unique and has different learning methods, therefore teachers have to modify their instruction,
curriculum or teaching style to meet the needs of the children (Greenwood et al. 2013). The
teachers should always have the best interest of the children at heart and with the understanding
that all the children in the classroom are different and their learning is shaped by different
factors. Jesus Christ taught that we should love our neighbours just as we love ourselves.
Moreover, the greatest teacher; Jesus Christ also taught using examples that were relevant to the
background of the culture of the people. For example, the parable of the sower was given to the
listeners because it was sowing time and they could easily relate to their context.
RTI consists of three steps which represent types of servicer or interventions used by teachers
and not for labelling learners. The first is to ensure that all children get high-quality instruction
and thus teaching practices should be child centred and evidence-based. The second tire
appreciates the fact that each child learns at his or her own pace, thus it is critical that the

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teachers change their instructional approaches to fit the need of the learner. This is contrary to
the segregation method in which children are grouped based on their learning ability, which is
reality is segregation based on racism and socioeconomic status. The third tier is an
individualized intervention with different instructional practices carried out by a team of teachers
and focusing on the whole child, family and the environment. This is applicable to the children
who haven’t responded positively to the interventions in tier 2 and even after holding
consultative meetings with the family. However, the third tier doesn’t imply special education,
diagnosis or labels. This is quite different from Sankara-Jabar’s case where the teachers
recommend medical evaluation of a child due to normal misbehaviour such as disruptive
behaviour as a result of the new social environment.
Section 2: Summary of Websites
Trusted Guide to Mental and Emotional Health
Most of the children are labelled as trouble makers because they don’t follow instruction, can’t
settle etc. sometimes such children might be having ADHD. It is often difficult to differentiate
between normal child behaviour and ADHD, however, not all children with ADHD are
hyperactive but they can sometimes be attentive on activities that interest them. It is not true that
children will automatically grow out ADHD symptoms in their adulthood. The best treatment
approach is not medication but education, family support, appropriate nutrition and behaviour
therapy (Help Guide, 2019).
Reducing Suspension and Expulsion Practices in Early Childhood Settings
The occurrence of expulsions and suspensions in preschool settings have been prevalent. This is
a grievous matter in the education sector because research shows that such practices affect the

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life of the child, the education sector and the child’s family. The initial stages of development of
a child are significant because they determine that child’s future, and should, therefore, be
handled carefully. This is in line with the bible which relates proper training of children and their
adulthood behaviour. These practices are further inappropriate because it's marred with racism in
which those boys of colour suffer the most. The U.S. Departments of Health and Human
Services and Education (2017) have designed policy guidelines on expulsion and suspension to
address the matter.
Association for Childhood Education International
Child Education International is an organization that aims at fostering creative solutions to
problems in education and motivate positive and sustainable approaches for children and youth
across the globe. The programs can be implemented globally and are evidence-based because
they are designed by experts in the education sector. The major programs include a centre for
education diplomacy and leadership, innovation exchange and worldwide schools first. The
organization has affiliations in different continents such as Africa, Europe, and America (Child
Education International, n.d.). This implies that an education teaching approach that works for an
American child can equally work for an African child, and therefore the idea of segregation as an
approach towards teaching is unfounded and unjustified.
National Association for the Education of Young Children
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) is an organization
consisting of experts that work to foster quality learning for all children by linking instructional
practice with research. The organization has collaborative initiatives to improve early childhood
education professionals in addition to providing evidence-based resources for families on

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fostering reading, writing etc. for children. It also works with multiple non-governments and
government organizations across the globe to support teachers and young learners (NAEYC,
n.d.).

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References
Buysse, V., & Peisner-Feinberg, E. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of response to intervention in early
childhood (1st ed.). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company.
Association for Childhood Education International. (n.d.). About Us. Retrieved from
https://acei.org/about-us/
Dobbie, W., & Fryer Jr, R. G. (2014). The impact of attending a school with high-achieving
peers: Evidence from the New York City exam schools. American Economic Journal:
Applied Economics, 6(3), 58-75.
Dweck, C. (2015). Carol Dweck revisits the growth mindset. Education Week, 35(5), 20-24.
George, M. P., George, N. L., Kern, L., & Fogt, J. B. (2013). Three-tiered support for students
with E/BD: Highlights of the universal tier. Education and Treatment of Children, 36(3),
47-62.
Greenwood, C. R., Carta, J. J., Atwater, J., Goldstein, H., Kaminski, R., & McConnell, S. (2013).
Is a response to intervention (RTI) approach to preschool language and early literacy
instruction needed?. Topics in early childhood special education, 33(1), 48-64.
Hawi, Z., Cummins, T. D. R., Tong, J., Johnson, B., Lau, R., Samarrai, W., & Bellgrove, M. A.
(2015). The molecular genetic architecture of attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder. Molecular psychiatry, 20(3), 289 - 296.
Help Guide. (2019). ADHD In Children. Retrieved from

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https://www.helpguide.org/articles/add- adhd/attention-deficit-disorder-adhd-in-
children.htm
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). (n.d.). About Us.
Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/our-work
Shaw, M., Hodgkins, P., Caci, H., Young, S., Kahle, J., Woods, A. G., & Arnold, L. E. (2012b).
A systematic review and analysis of long-term outcomes in attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder: effects of treatment and non-treatment. BMC medicine, 10(1), 99-103.
Shaw, P., Malek, M., Watson, B., Sharp, W., Evans, A., & Greenstein, D. (2012a). Development
of cortical surface area and gyrification in attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder. Biological psychiatry, 72(3), 191-197.
Tomlinson, C. A., & Javius, E. L. (2012). Teach up for excellence. Educational
Leadership, 69(5), 28-33.
U.S. Department of Education: Office for Civil Rights (2018). Key Data Highlights On Equity
And Opportunity Gaps In Our Nation’s Public Schools. Retrieved from
https://www2.ed.gov/ocr/docs/2013-14-first-look.pdf
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (2017). Reducing Suspension and Expulsion
Practices in Early Childhood Settings. Retrieved from
https://www.acf.hhs.gov/ecd/child-health-development/reducing-suspension-and-
expulsion-practices