A Global Perspective on the Social Determinants of Health
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This article discusses the impact of social determinants of health on global health disparities and disease outbreaks. It focuses on the Ebola virus outbreak, its transmission, and the delay in developing a vaccine. It also explores the public health management strategies implemented to prevent and control the spread of Ebola.
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Running head: HEALTHCARE ASSIGNMENT A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH Name of the student Name of the university Author note
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1HEALTHCARE ASSIGNMENT Introduction Social determinants of health are critical conditions in which any person born, grows, age, works and dies. As per World Health Organisation (2019), due to improper distribution of wealth, power and resources at local, national and global levels, inequalities in social determinants of health is observed. Therefore, depending on these aspects, the difference in health status of different countries are determined. However, in disease outbreak associated condition, despite of unequal distribution of power, wealth and resources, adverse effect for entire community is observed as in case of disease outbreak, despite the availability of the resources, people are unaware of its utilization (Braveman & Gottlieb, 2014). Therefore, to preventsuchcondition,aspertheWorldHealthOrganisation(2019),publichealth management strategies should be implemented so that proper management of the condition could be achieved. One such disease outbreak was related to Ebola virus was observed from the year 2013 up to 2016 and affected majority of the western African region by affecting its social economic condition and extreme loss of life (Gomes et al., 2014). The countries that were reported with extreme outbreak of Ebola were Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. As per the World Health Organisation (2019), due to the outbreak of Ebola, more than 28,000 cases were registered in the year 2014, in which 11,310 people were reportedly died in the disease condition. The primary aim of this paper is to understand the outbreak of Ebola virus and with proper details of the virus, the source of the outbreak and the way of transmission, discussion of the identification and prevention measures applied by such countries would be discussed. Further, the reason due to which, the discovery of Ebola vaccination was delayed would be discussed in comparison to other conditions. Finally, the public health management strategies
2HEALTHCARE ASSIGNMENT andpreventionconditionswouldbediscussedinthelightofapplicationofsocial determinants of health. Ebola virus and its transmission Ebola Virus or commonly as the Ebola haemorrhage fever is one of the severe and fatal critical health condition. The first discovery of this virus was done in the year 1976 when it outbreak in the south Sudan, however the outbreak of 2013 to 2016 is termed as the most severe disease in the history of mankind as it affected the entire African continent (. This virus is a member of Filoviridae family and the outbreak that affected a large population of the world community belong to the Zaire Ebola virus species. While discussing the source of the virus, the documentation about the disease by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2019) should be mentioned as the source of the disease has not been found by the scientists. However, depending on the identification of other similar viruses, it is determined that the virus is originated from animals and bat is the most popular source of this virus (Camacho et al., 2014). As per Moratelli and Calisher (2015), the virus originated in the bats, spread to the humans through other animals like apes and monkeys. Transmission of the disorder spreads through the fruit bats that belong to the Pteropodidae family as per Leendertz et al. (2016), which is one of the natural host for the virus. Further Lewnard et al. (2014) also mentioned in the research that majority of the transmission that were assessed for the identification of transmission route were associated with the contact of blood, secretions bodily fluids of animals of rainforest such as the fruit bats, gorillas, monkeys and apes. Further, transmission of Ebola in human to human aspect is through bodily fluids, secretion of an infected individual which transferred to other through injuriesorcontaminationthatspreadsthroughtheblood-borneinfection(Chowell&
3HEALTHCARE ASSIGNMENT Nishiura, 2014). In this aspect, the risk of healthcare professionals to be affected with this adverse viral disease should be mentioned as Matanock et al. (2014) mentioned that healthcare professionals are at high risk of infected with Ebola virus while treating patients with such healthcare condition. Due to close affinity with the patients and contact with bodily secretions of the patient, healthcare professionals are at high risk of developing this disease condition. Further, besides the above- mentioned way of Ebola virus transmission, sexual mode of transmission was also observed and registered as well as documented in the World Health Organisation (2019). As per the document, due to the presence of the viable virus in the semen of infected individuals, maximum number of Ebola affected cases were registered under the sexual transmission category (World Health Organisation, 2019). Besides the sexual transmission of the disease, consumption of fruits that are infected with fruit bats and monkeys or apes could also lead to transmission pf the virus among the humans. Moreover, usage of contaminated needles and syringes, or using objects that contain the body fluid of infected individual could lead to severe condition of Ebola fever or haemorrhage. However, in this aspect it should be mentioned that, as per Rewar and Mirdha (2014) Ebola virus does not spread through food and researchers also do not get any sign of the spread of this disease through mosquitoes and other insects, hence the transmission of this virus is restricted to the contamination of bodily fluids and sexual mode of transmission. Vaccination and development of Ebola vaccine Whileunderstandingthevaccinedevelopmentandprecedentdelayinthe development of the vaccine, the history and the prevalence of the disease should be understood so that the approach of the global healthcare organisations in the development of the vaccine could be understood. As per Lai et al. (2015), economically development of vaccinesforanyneworsuddendiseaseoutbreak,requiresimmediatefundingand
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4HEALTHCARE ASSIGNMENT collaboration between the public and private organisations. Further, it also depends on the need and urge of the government that are affected of the disease outbreak so that starting from development of the vaccine to its clinical trials and registration and regulatory approval and in the later stage, large scale production and implementation occurs (Regules et al., 2017). Therefore as per Marzi et al. (2015) several factors contributed in the delay of development of vaccines for Ebola virus than the contemporary H1N1 and Zika virus vaccine development. The barriers or hurdles present in the way of vaccine development for Ebola virus are as follows: Lack of technological means: there are several organisations that claims to discover the vaccine forZaire ebolavirushowever, due to the loopholes and lack in these developed vaccines, the need of an effective and efficient vaccine forZaire ebolaviruscould be seen in the healthcare facilities around the world (Henao-Restrepo et al., 2015). As per Tully et al. (2015) the British pharmacological organisation GlaxoSmithKline developed one Ebola virus vaccine while the outbreak of the disease however, the vaccination takes time to grow and divide in human body, hence showed delayed response. This vaccine is termed as cAd3- ZEBOV which was completely funded by the private organisations and hence, lack of funding and technology was one of the reason for the inefficient development of Ebola vaccines around the world (Ahmadi Fard, 2016). Returnoninvestment:oneoftheprimaryreasonforthestalledordelayed development of vaccines of Ebola virus was due to the location of the disease outbreak and associated social determinants of health of that region. As per Dye (2014), majority of the disease vaccines that has been rapidly developed and implemented in the community were focused on the returns that the organisations developing the vaccines were supposed to get from the market. As per the researchers Modjarrad et al. (2016), the primary aim of the organisations developing such vaccines is to target the market of the most affected country so
5HEALTHCARE ASSIGNMENT that maximum and profitable return could be collected. However, the primary outbreak of the Ebola virus occurred in the African continent and very few disease conditions were registered in first world countries such as the United States, Spain, Italy and others (World Health Organization, 2015). Therefore, developing vaccines for a region form where minimal return would be generated was the primary hindrance for the organisations developing vaccines for Ebola. Further, as per Ahmadi Fard (2016) majority of the funding for the development and research of vaccines comes from UK, USA, Switzerland, and Canada therefore, lack of scope of return of investment was the primary scope of delay in the development of vaccines for Ebola virus. Lack of awareness: as per Shrivastava, Shrivastava and Ramasamy (2015) lack of awareness and inability of the local and world healthcare organisations in developing awareness among the population of the affected countries regarding the developed and efficient vaccine for Ebola was one of the critical limiting factor. As per Fazekas et al. (2015), the government of western African countries were not able to spread awareness among the affected communities due to which, the implementation of the vaccines in the severely affected communities stalled or delayed. Description of public health management strategies in affected regions AsperWorldHealthOrganisation(2019),thereisarangeofpublichealth recommendations developed by the organisation so that in the condition of disease outbreak, effective care and treatment could be provided to the patients and associated awareness about the disease could be spread. Within these guidelines, the roadmap to prevention and the framework for achieving sustainable health outcomes are of most importance (Forrester et al., 2014). The primary aim of this healthcare management strategies are to make the population affected with the health condition or are at the higher risk of developing disease condition, could be provided with detailed nature of the disease and the type of transmissions through
6HEALTHCARE ASSIGNMENT which the occurrence of this disease is observed. This would help the communities to develop a healthcare literacy about the disease condition, and they will be able to prevent the severe means of Ebola transmission (Lewnard et al., 2014). Further these guidelines also helped the countries and healthcare authorities to understand the ways of managing and responding to the adverse conditions. Hence, through the identification of the disease prevention and management strategies, it could be expected that the communities would be able to manage the healthcare condition effectively. Further, the roadmap that was developed by the World Health Organisation (2019) for the achievement of complete awareness among the population of western Africa, was implemented with the gaol of restricting the Ebola virus within 6 to 9 months. Therefore the primary aim of this road map was to strengthen the countries so that they could develop effective means of prevention and exposure in the communities (Christie et al., 2015). Further,thepreventivemeasuresthatwasdevelopedbytheWorldHealth Organisation (2019) was related to effective ways using which the transmission of the virus among the population with lower social determinants of health could be developed. The primary strategies that were mentioned in the preventive measures were related to the reduction of wildlife to human transmission, controlling the human to human transmission, reducing the risk factors related to sexual transmission, and then determining the containment measures so that the outbreak could be controlled within 9 months (Lewnard et al., 2014). Further, it also developed the awareness program so that people suffering from the disease outbreak could be provided with effective means of prevention and control of Ebola outbreak. Further, as per Christie et al. (2015), the government should also restrict the dead body burial of patients affected with Ebola in specific locations so that the infection could not spread from the infected dead bodies. These are the prevention and awareness means that were developed for the Ebola prevention.
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7HEALTHCARE ASSIGNMENT Conclusion While concluding the paper, it could be said that social determinants of health such as economic aspects, educational resources, availability of healthcare choices, and the degree of awareness determines the ability of any community to overcome of disease outbreak. This paper discussed about the Ebola disease outbreak and in the course it mentions about the transmission, development and progression of the disease. Further, in the course, it mentions that despite a global concern, the development of the vaccination took excess time and the paper discussed about the factors that contributed in the delay of the vaccine development of the disease. Finally the means using which the public health management and preventive measures for the disease outbreak was developed, has been mentioned in the paper.
8HEALTHCARE ASSIGNMENT References AhmadiFard, A. (2016). Ebolahemorrhagicfever:outbreaks,modeling,and vaccine development. Braveman, P., & Gottlieb, L. (2014). The social determinants of health: it's time to consider the causes of the causes.Public health reports,129(1_suppl2), 19-31. Camacho, A., Kucharski, A. J., Funk, S., Breman, J., Piot, P., & Edmunds, W. J. (2014). Potential for large outbreaks of Ebola virus disease.Epidemics,9, 70-78. Centers for Disease Prevention and Control. (2019). History of Ebola Virus Disease Error processingSSIfile.Retrievedfrom https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/history/summaries.html Chowell, G., & Nishiura, H. (2014). Transmission dynamics and control of Ebola virus disease (EVD): a review.BMC medicine,12(1), 196. Christie, A., Davies-Wayne, G. J., Cordier-Lasalle, T., Blackley, D. J., Laney, A. S., Williams, D. E., ... & Ladner, J. T. (2015). Possible sexual transmission of Ebola virus—Liberia, 2015.MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report,64(17), 479. Dye,C.(2014).After2015:infectiousdiseasesinaneweraofhealthand development.PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyB:Biological Sciences,369(1645), 20130426. Fazekas, B., Fazekas, J., Moledina, M., & Karolyhazy, K. (2015). Ebola virus disease: awareness among junior doctors in England.Journal of Hospital Infection,90(3), 260-262. Forrester, J. D., Hunter, J. C., Pillai, S. K., Arwady, M. A., Ayscue, P., Matanock, A., ... & De Cock, K. M. (2014). Cluster of Ebola cases among Liberian and US health care
9HEALTHCARE ASSIGNMENT workers in an Ebola treatment unit and adjacent hospital—Liberia, 2014.MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report,63(41), 925. Gomes, M. F., y Piontti, A. P., Rossi, L., Chao, D., Longini, I., Halloran, M. E., & Vespignani, A. (2014). Assessing the international spreading risk associated with the 2014 West African Ebola outbreak.PLoS currents,6. Henao-Restrepo, A. M., Longini, I. M., Egger, M., Dean, N. E., Edmunds, W. J., Camacho, A., ... & Enwere, G. (2015). Efficacy and effectiveness of an rVSV-vectored vaccine expressingEbolasurfaceglycoprotein:interimresultsfromtheGuinearing vaccination cluster-randomised trial.The Lancet,386(9996), 857-866. Lai, L., Davey, R., Beck, A., Xu, Y., Suffredini, A. F., Palmore, T., ... & Link, C. J. (2015). Emergency postexposure vaccination with vesicular stomatitis virus–vectored Ebola vaccine after needlestick.Jama,313(12), 1249-1255. Leendertz, S. A. J., Gogarten, J. F., Düx, A., Calvignac-Spencer, S., & Leendertz, F. H. (2016). Assessing the evidence supporting fruit bats as the primary reservoirs for Ebola viruses.EcoHealth,13(1), 18-25. Lewnard, J. A., Mbah, M. L. N., Alfaro-Murillo, J. A., Altice, F. L., Bawo, L., Nyenswah, T. G., & Galvani, A. P. (2014). Dynamics and control of Ebola virus transmission in Montserrado,Liberia:a mathematicalmodellinganalysis.The Lancet Infectious Diseases,14(12), 1189-1195. Lewnard, J. A., Mbah, M. L. N., Alfaro-Murillo, J. A., Altice, F. L., Bawo, L., Nyenswah, T. G., & Galvani, A. P. (2014). Dynamics and control of Ebola virus transmission in Montserrado,Liberia:a mathematicalmodellinganalysis.The Lancet Infectious Diseases,14(12), 1189-1195.
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10HEALTHCARE ASSIGNMENT Marzi, A., Feldmann, F., Hanley, P. W., Scott, D. P., Günther, S., & Feldmann, H. (2015). Delayed disease progression in cynomolgus macaques infected with Ebola virus Makona strain.Emerging infectious diseases,21(10), 1777. Matanock, A., Arwady, M. A., Ayscue, P., Forrester, J. D., Gaddis, B., Hunter, J. C., ... & Massaquoi, M. (2014). Ebola virus disease cases among health care workers not working in Ebola treatment units—Liberia, June–August, 2014.MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report,63(46), 1077. Modjarrad, K., Giersing, B., Kaslow, D. C., Smith, P. G., & Moorthy, V. S. (2016). WHO consultation on respiratory syncytial virus vaccine development report from a World Health Organization meeting held on 23–24 March 2015.Vaccine,34(2), 190-197. Moratelli, R., & Calisher, C. H. (2015). Bats and zoonotic viruses: can we confidently link bats with emerging deadly viruses?.Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,110(1), 1- 22. Regules, J. A., Beigel, J. H., Paolino, K. M., Voell, J., Castellano, A. R., Hu, Z., ... & Twomey, P. S. (2017). A recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus Ebola vaccine.New England Journal of Medicine,376(4), 330-341. Rewar, S., & Mirdha, D. (2014). Transmission of Ebola virus disease: an overview.Annals of global health,80(6), 444-451. Shrivastava, S. R., Shrivastava, P. S., & Ramasamy, J. (2015). Ebola disease: an international public health emergency.Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease,5(4), 253-262. Tully, C. M., Lambe, T., Gilbert, S. C., & Hill, A. V. (2015). Emergency Ebola response: a new approach to the rapid design and development of vaccines against emerging diseases.The Lancet Infectious Diseases,15(3), 356-359.
11HEALTHCARE ASSIGNMENT World Health Organisation. (2019). Ebola publications: Strategy, and coordination. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/ebola/coordination/en/ WorldHealthOrganisation.(2019).Ebolavirusdisease.Retrievedfrom https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebola-virus-disease WorldHealthOrganisation.(2019).Socialdeterminantsofhealth.Retrievedfrom https://www.who.int/social_determinants/sdh_definition/en/ World Health Organization. (2015).First workshop of the partners group on Ebola vaccines deployment,24-26February2015,Geneva,Switzerland:summaryreport(No. WHO/EVD/Meet/HIS/15.2 Rev. 1). World Health Organization.