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INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS AND DIABETES 1
INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS AND DIABETES
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INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS AND DIABETES
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INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS AND DIABETES 2
Indigenous Australians in Relation to Diabetes
The Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginalpeople in Australia suffer Diabetes very often.
The UTS refers the Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander as being Indigenous. Among those
suffering from diabetes, foot complications have become the major contribution to the mortality
as well as morbidity led the chronic illness. Diabetes Australia was formed as the national body
that involved people with diabetes and as well as those at risk among the Torres Strait Islander
and Aboriginal. Till to date, Diabetes Australian organization is committed towards reducing the
impact of diabetes. Mitigating the effects of diabetes has been the major goal of Diabetes
Australia all along. This is because the community has suffered health issues for a long time. The
aim of this paper is to evaluate the factors contributing to increased rates of diabetes as well as
other health issues among Australian Indigenous, compared to non-indigenous.
The 2012-13 health data in relation to Diabetes among the indigenous Australian
The health report of 2012–13 concluded that indigenous were likely to be obese and acquire high
blood pressure compared to the non-indigenous population. In fact, the 2012-13 report shows
that more than 11 percent of the indigenous group who are 18 years and above were diabetic.
After the age differences adjustment within the two populations, it was 3 times more in
comparison to non-indigenous population (Thomas et al. 2014). This included approximately 9.6
percent of Indigenous individuals having recognized diabetes as well as 1.5 percent newly
diagnosed with the disease using the blood experiment outcomes. The blood test suggested that
around 14 percent having diabetes was not diagnosed previously.
Indigenous Australians in Relation to Diabetes
The Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginalpeople in Australia suffer Diabetes very often.
The UTS refers the Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander as being Indigenous. Among those
suffering from diabetes, foot complications have become the major contribution to the mortality
as well as morbidity led the chronic illness. Diabetes Australia was formed as the national body
that involved people with diabetes and as well as those at risk among the Torres Strait Islander
and Aboriginal. Till to date, Diabetes Australian organization is committed towards reducing the
impact of diabetes. Mitigating the effects of diabetes has been the major goal of Diabetes
Australia all along. This is because the community has suffered health issues for a long time. The
aim of this paper is to evaluate the factors contributing to increased rates of diabetes as well as
other health issues among Australian Indigenous, compared to non-indigenous.
The 2012-13 health data in relation to Diabetes among the indigenous Australian
The health report of 2012–13 concluded that indigenous were likely to be obese and acquire high
blood pressure compared to the non-indigenous population. In fact, the 2012-13 report shows
that more than 11 percent of the indigenous group who are 18 years and above were diabetic.
After the age differences adjustment within the two populations, it was 3 times more in
comparison to non-indigenous population (Thomas et al. 2014). This included approximately 9.6
percent of Indigenous individuals having recognized diabetes as well as 1.5 percent newly
diagnosed with the disease using the blood experiment outcomes. The blood test suggested that
around 14 percent having diabetes was not diagnosed previously.
INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS AND DIABETES 3
Concerning the non-Indigenous adults having diabetes, 18 percent were not diagnosed in
the previous test. However, the total number of indigenous adults suffering from diabetes was
three times higher than the number of non-indigenous. The ratio rate for those not diagnosed
previously two times higher (Thomas et al.2014). Besides,5 percent of Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander community already had blood test indicating compromised fasting plasma
glucose. This meant that they were at risk of having diabetes and besides 1.8 times the number of
the non-indigenous. Among those aboriginal adults both male and female with acknowledged
diabetes, approximately 61 percent had the blood test revealing that the disorder was not being
well managed (West et al. 2017).Therefore, it the rates were 1.4 times higher the number of the
non-indigenous within Australia. Besides, half the number of those with diabetes among the
indigenous group had signs of acute kidney disease.
Demographic profile of the indigenous in Australia
The measured rates for Australians Indigenous adults with diabetes were double the
number in remote zones in comparison to those living in non-remote sectors. However, both men
and women had equal rates of diabetes among the indigenous. The high rates of diabetes were
generally found in remote locations compared to non-remote places. This is because; health
services in remote areas where most indigenous people live were poor (Kendall et al.
2015).Notably, the indigenous were less likely to afford fruits daily compared to non-indigenous
hence contributing to high risks of diabetes. Among the Indigenous Australians, problems of
diabetes began in younger age group among the indigenous. The rates of diabetes were higher
among people with 35 years and above (Ekinciet al.2015). Therefore, upon reaching 55 years
and above, more than 1/3 of Indigenous people had diabetes.
Concerning the non-Indigenous adults having diabetes, 18 percent were not diagnosed in
the previous test. However, the total number of indigenous adults suffering from diabetes was
three times higher than the number of non-indigenous. The ratio rate for those not diagnosed
previously two times higher (Thomas et al.2014). Besides,5 percent of Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander community already had blood test indicating compromised fasting plasma
glucose. This meant that they were at risk of having diabetes and besides 1.8 times the number of
the non-indigenous. Among those aboriginal adults both male and female with acknowledged
diabetes, approximately 61 percent had the blood test revealing that the disorder was not being
well managed (West et al. 2017).Therefore, it the rates were 1.4 times higher the number of the
non-indigenous within Australia. Besides, half the number of those with diabetes among the
indigenous group had signs of acute kidney disease.
Demographic profile of the indigenous in Australia
The measured rates for Australians Indigenous adults with diabetes were double the
number in remote zones in comparison to those living in non-remote sectors. However, both men
and women had equal rates of diabetes among the indigenous. The high rates of diabetes were
generally found in remote locations compared to non-remote places. This is because; health
services in remote areas where most indigenous people live were poor (Kendall et al.
2015).Notably, the indigenous were less likely to afford fruits daily compared to non-indigenous
hence contributing to high risks of diabetes. Among the Indigenous Australians, problems of
diabetes began in younger age group among the indigenous. The rates of diabetes were higher
among people with 35 years and above (Ekinciet al.2015). Therefore, upon reaching 55 years
and above, more than 1/3 of Indigenous people had diabetes.
INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS AND DIABETES 4
The age structure also, concerning the indigenous group is essentially younger compared
to that of non-indigenous Australians (Ekinciet al.2015). This indicates that the younger the ages
structure the higher chances of reducing the impact of diabetes. With well implemented and
completely provided antenatal health services, it is possible to lessen the gap in continuing health
results. Also, effective and timely interventions towards assisting the young adults to adopt
healthy lives, the will be high chances of fighting all health problems among the indigenous
people (Marmot, 2011). Therefore, it is essential the determination is directed towards improving
the health of Aboriginal individuals all through their development life. Besides, it is vital to
consider the demographic composition when planning for service delivery and resource
requirements for the indigenous population. In fact, there was statistically major relationship
between the commonness of diabetes and chosen social determinants of health issues and risk
influences such as educational attainment, socio-economic status blood pressure, and weight.
Social determinants and other factors contributing to diabetes
The major factors contributing to growth diabetes within the indigenous community is a
reflection of the blend the social, demographic as well as cultural determinants (Xie et al. 2017).
A number of Torres Strait Islander Aboriginal group reside in regional as well as the urban
places. However, much larger proportion resides in very remote areas when comparing with the
number of non-indigenous populace (Minges et al. 2011). The relatively little percentage of
Torres Strait Islander or the Aboriginal individuals who resides in remote places undergo
approximately 40 percent of the health difference of indigenous people overall.
Other factors towards the contribution of diabetes among Aboriginal families are the little
variety as well as the quality of nutritious foods within the remotes areas. In fact, the cost of
The age structure also, concerning the indigenous group is essentially younger compared
to that of non-indigenous Australians (Ekinciet al.2015). This indicates that the younger the ages
structure the higher chances of reducing the impact of diabetes. With well implemented and
completely provided antenatal health services, it is possible to lessen the gap in continuing health
results. Also, effective and timely interventions towards assisting the young adults to adopt
healthy lives, the will be high chances of fighting all health problems among the indigenous
people (Marmot, 2011). Therefore, it is essential the determination is directed towards improving
the health of Aboriginal individuals all through their development life. Besides, it is vital to
consider the demographic composition when planning for service delivery and resource
requirements for the indigenous population. In fact, there was statistically major relationship
between the commonness of diabetes and chosen social determinants of health issues and risk
influences such as educational attainment, socio-economic status blood pressure, and weight.
Social determinants and other factors contributing to diabetes
The major factors contributing to growth diabetes within the indigenous community is a
reflection of the blend the social, demographic as well as cultural determinants (Xie et al. 2017).
A number of Torres Strait Islander Aboriginal group reside in regional as well as the urban
places. However, much larger proportion resides in very remote areas when comparing with the
number of non-indigenous populace (Minges et al. 2011). The relatively little percentage of
Torres Strait Islander or the Aboriginal individuals who resides in remote places undergo
approximately 40 percent of the health difference of indigenous people overall.
Other factors towards the contribution of diabetes among Aboriginal families are the little
variety as well as the quality of nutritious foods within the remotes areas. In fact, the cost of
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INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS AND DIABETES 5
healthy foods in remote areas in Australia is 50 percent higher than in big towns.As a result, it
has been understood that at least 34-80% involving the income of the Indigenous population in
remote places is required to enhance health diet. That would be at least twice the percentage of
that needed by the non-indigenous (Cunningham et al. 2008). Ideally, the factors leading to
higher charges of foods within the remote zones are higher store overheads as well as increased
freight costs. Besides, other factors contributing to high costs include the lessened economies of
scale involved in retailing and purchasing in rural areas, greater food stock wastage as well as
lack of store management practices. Communities in remote locations could also survive without
food for days as a result of road conditions, weather especially during wet seasons.
Reasons why the indigenouspopulation receiveslesser health care
Australia's Torres Strait Islander andAboriginal population experience poorer
medicationscompared to the non-Indigenous people due to their socioeconomic status. Inequality
leading to discrimination has resulted in the indigenous population receiving poor health care
hence high rates of diabetic people (Ekinciet al.2015). Ideally, the identity of the indigenous
population has led to inequality thus discrimination and poor health services in comparison to the
non-indigenous group. Income, occupation as well as wealth play significant roles in health and
in social-economic position.World Health Organization noted that Torres Strait Islander and the
Aboriginal population experienced difficulties when it comes to accessing primary health
attention which needed an intervention (Thomas et al. 2015). Higher incomes indeed lead to
better access to services and goods that offer health benefits. However, lack of income due to
illness, injury and disability may significantly affect people's social status and health.
healthy foods in remote areas in Australia is 50 percent higher than in big towns.As a result, it
has been understood that at least 34-80% involving the income of the Indigenous population in
remote places is required to enhance health diet. That would be at least twice the percentage of
that needed by the non-indigenous (Cunningham et al. 2008). Ideally, the factors leading to
higher charges of foods within the remote zones are higher store overheads as well as increased
freight costs. Besides, other factors contributing to high costs include the lessened economies of
scale involved in retailing and purchasing in rural areas, greater food stock wastage as well as
lack of store management practices. Communities in remote locations could also survive without
food for days as a result of road conditions, weather especially during wet seasons.
Reasons why the indigenouspopulation receiveslesser health care
Australia's Torres Strait Islander andAboriginal population experience poorer
medicationscompared to the non-Indigenous people due to their socioeconomic status. Inequality
leading to discrimination has resulted in the indigenous population receiving poor health care
hence high rates of diabetic people (Ekinciet al.2015). Ideally, the identity of the indigenous
population has led to inequality thus discrimination and poor health services in comparison to the
non-indigenous group. Income, occupation as well as wealth play significant roles in health and
in social-economic position.World Health Organization noted that Torres Strait Islander and the
Aboriginal population experienced difficulties when it comes to accessing primary health
attention which needed an intervention (Thomas et al. 2015). Higher incomes indeed lead to
better access to services and goods that offer health benefits. However, lack of income due to
illness, injury and disability may significantly affect people's social status and health.
INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS AND DIABETES 6
The unemployed group of Aboriginal suffers high risks of problems in relation to health
because of poor diet. Besides, they suffer from the usage of drugs and other substances compared
to non-indigenous population due to lack of employment. As a result, they under a lot of stress,
depression, and anxiety which further lead to poor health (Xie et al. 2017). However, there is
always a growing trend in the occurrence of obesity and underweight among the employed
indigenous adults in contrast to unemployed as well as to the non-indigenous group. Besides,
educational achievement among the remote Torres Strait Islander and the Aboriginal is relatively
difficult. However, those living within the city may have similar achievement with the non-
indigenous population. Nevertheless, those suffering from lack of education are the indigenous
thus poor health management among themselves. Educational achievement is connected with
enhanced health all through. The 2012-2013 health survey evaluated the connection between
educational attainment and dietary behavior (Petraket al.2015). The indigenous individuals who
already had finished year ten had a likelihood of consuming inadequate fruits and vegetables
amount notably 59 percent.On the other hand, those who had accomplished year 12 and above
consumed higher amounts of vegetables and fruits hence low rates of health problems.
The primary health system of Australia has implemented the principles of health services
in relation to Diabetes (Barr et al. 2017).The primary health care aims at reducing the impact of
diabetes on proper monitoring and better services. In fact, it is also the subject to the continuing
national reform such as an implementation of health records and primary health networks. By
evaluating the diabetes care project, primary health care will lessen the chances of continuous
effects (Foreman et al. 2017). Besides, they have settled on proper training that may enable
prevention of diabetes as well as detection of early signs of the disease. It includes a significant
The unemployed group of Aboriginal suffers high risks of problems in relation to health
because of poor diet. Besides, they suffer from the usage of drugs and other substances compared
to non-indigenous population due to lack of employment. As a result, they under a lot of stress,
depression, and anxiety which further lead to poor health (Xie et al. 2017). However, there is
always a growing trend in the occurrence of obesity and underweight among the employed
indigenous adults in contrast to unemployed as well as to the non-indigenous group. Besides,
educational achievement among the remote Torres Strait Islander and the Aboriginal is relatively
difficult. However, those living within the city may have similar achievement with the non-
indigenous population. Nevertheless, those suffering from lack of education are the indigenous
thus poor health management among themselves. Educational achievement is connected with
enhanced health all through. The 2012-2013 health survey evaluated the connection between
educational attainment and dietary behavior (Petraket al.2015). The indigenous individuals who
already had finished year ten had a likelihood of consuming inadequate fruits and vegetables
amount notably 59 percent.On the other hand, those who had accomplished year 12 and above
consumed higher amounts of vegetables and fruits hence low rates of health problems.
The primary health system of Australia has implemented the principles of health services
in relation to Diabetes (Barr et al. 2017).The primary health care aims at reducing the impact of
diabetes on proper monitoring and better services. In fact, it is also the subject to the continuing
national reform such as an implementation of health records and primary health networks. By
evaluating the diabetes care project, primary health care will lessen the chances of continuous
effects (Foreman et al. 2017). Besides, they have settled on proper training that may enable
prevention of diabetes as well as detection of early signs of the disease. It includes a significant
INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS AND DIABETES 7
range of services such as prevention, promotion, and management of chronic and acute diseases
such as diabetes among all people.
Strategies that would help the indigenous population have equitable entrée to PHC.
In conclusion, Torres Strait Islander as well asthe Aboriginal community is excessively and
unreasonably affected by the epidemic of diabetes. Besides, they face difficulties accessing
equitable PHC as well as effective chronic care. Factors leading to increased diabetes rates and
other health risks amongst the indigenous Australians include social, demographic profile and
the economic determinants. Therefore, the management and prevention of diabetes are crucial for
both current and the impending health life of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander community.
To achieve all that, some strategies need to be implemented such as programs that are directed
towards the community needs.The movement should as well be should be socially andculturally
appropriate. Actions that are far beyond those of health service system and address the wider
social, cultural as well as other determinants in relation to health would also be effective. The
importance of decreasing diabetes effects among theindigenous individuals is well recognized by
Australian governments and other experts. However, the occurrence of the disease and deaths
associated with health problems still persists. Therefore, providing effective management and
prevention for the indigenous population will need the upgraded access to good and quality
primary health amenities as well as qualified health amenities. Inventive and more so effective
movements already exist among the indigenous at the local level. There is much that can be
learned through these programs in relation to health care. However, the coordinated national
approach will also be needed to enable maximum and equitable access to PHC. The introduction
of the novel Australian domestic diabetes approach 2016-2020, could also have been an effectual
early stride towards the goal. Indeed, lack of persistent determination towards socially and
range of services such as prevention, promotion, and management of chronic and acute diseases
such as diabetes among all people.
Strategies that would help the indigenous population have equitable entrée to PHC.
In conclusion, Torres Strait Islander as well asthe Aboriginal community is excessively and
unreasonably affected by the epidemic of diabetes. Besides, they face difficulties accessing
equitable PHC as well as effective chronic care. Factors leading to increased diabetes rates and
other health risks amongst the indigenous Australians include social, demographic profile and
the economic determinants. Therefore, the management and prevention of diabetes are crucial for
both current and the impending health life of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander community.
To achieve all that, some strategies need to be implemented such as programs that are directed
towards the community needs.The movement should as well be should be socially andculturally
appropriate. Actions that are far beyond those of health service system and address the wider
social, cultural as well as other determinants in relation to health would also be effective. The
importance of decreasing diabetes effects among theindigenous individuals is well recognized by
Australian governments and other experts. However, the occurrence of the disease and deaths
associated with health problems still persists. Therefore, providing effective management and
prevention for the indigenous population will need the upgraded access to good and quality
primary health amenities as well as qualified health amenities. Inventive and more so effective
movements already exist among the indigenous at the local level. There is much that can be
learned through these programs in relation to health care. However, the coordinated national
approach will also be needed to enable maximum and equitable access to PHC. The introduction
of the novel Australian domestic diabetes approach 2016-2020, could also have been an effectual
early stride towards the goal. Indeed, lack of persistent determination towards socially and
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INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS AND DIABETES 8
demographically appropriate management interventions and prevention that addresses health
issues across their lifespan, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander community will persist on
undergoing unreasonably increased rates involving health problems.
References
demographically appropriate management interventions and prevention that addresses health
issues across their lifespan, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander community will persist on
undergoing unreasonably increased rates involving health problems.
References
INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS AND DIABETES 9
Barr, E.L.M., Cunningham, J., Tatipata, S., Dunbar, T., Kangaharan, N., Guthridge, S., Li, S.Q.,
Condon, J.R., Shaw, J.E., O'dea, K. and Maple‐Brown, L.J., 2017. Associations of mortality and
cardiovascular disease risks with diabetes and albuminuria in urban Indigenous Australians: the
DRUID follow‐up study. Diabetic Medicine.
Cunningham, J., O'Dea, K., Dunbar, T., Weeramanthri, T., Shaw, J. and Zimmet, P., 2008.
Socioeconomic status and diabetes among urban Indigenous Australians aged 15–64 years in the
DRUID study. Ethnicity and Health, 13(1), pp.23-37.
Ekinci, E.I., Hughes, J.T., Chatfield, M.D., Lawton, P.D., Jones, G.R., Ellis, A.G., Cass, A.,
Thomas, M., MacIsaac, R.J., O'dea, K. and Jerums, G., 2015.Hyperfiltration in Indigenous
Australians with and without diabetes. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 30(11), pp.1877-
1884.
Foreman, J., Keel, S., Xie, J., Van Wijngaarden, P., Taylor, H. and Dirani, M., 2017. The
prevalence and main causes of vision loss in Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians: The
Australian National Eye Health Survey. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 58(8),
pp.834-834.
Kendall, E. and Barnett, L., 2015. Principles for the development of Aboriginal health
interventions: culturally appropriate methods through systemic empathy. Ethnicity &
health, 20(5), pp.437-452.
Marmot, M., 2011.Social determinants and the health of Indigenous Australians. Med J
Aust, 194(10), pp.512-3.
Barr, E.L.M., Cunningham, J., Tatipata, S., Dunbar, T., Kangaharan, N., Guthridge, S., Li, S.Q.,
Condon, J.R., Shaw, J.E., O'dea, K. and Maple‐Brown, L.J., 2017. Associations of mortality and
cardiovascular disease risks with diabetes and albuminuria in urban Indigenous Australians: the
DRUID follow‐up study. Diabetic Medicine.
Cunningham, J., O'Dea, K., Dunbar, T., Weeramanthri, T., Shaw, J. and Zimmet, P., 2008.
Socioeconomic status and diabetes among urban Indigenous Australians aged 15–64 years in the
DRUID study. Ethnicity and Health, 13(1), pp.23-37.
Ekinci, E.I., Hughes, J.T., Chatfield, M.D., Lawton, P.D., Jones, G.R., Ellis, A.G., Cass, A.,
Thomas, M., MacIsaac, R.J., O'dea, K. and Jerums, G., 2015.Hyperfiltration in Indigenous
Australians with and without diabetes. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 30(11), pp.1877-
1884.
Foreman, J., Keel, S., Xie, J., Van Wijngaarden, P., Taylor, H. and Dirani, M., 2017. The
prevalence and main causes of vision loss in Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians: The
Australian National Eye Health Survey. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 58(8),
pp.834-834.
Kendall, E. and Barnett, L., 2015. Principles for the development of Aboriginal health
interventions: culturally appropriate methods through systemic empathy. Ethnicity &
health, 20(5), pp.437-452.
Marmot, M., 2011.Social determinants and the health of Indigenous Australians. Med J
Aust, 194(10), pp.512-3.
INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS AND DIABETES 10
Minges, K.E., Zimmet, P., Magliano, D.J., Dunstan, D.W., Brown, A. and Shaw, J.E., 2011.
Diabetes prevalence and determinants in Indigenous Australian populations: A systematic
review. Diabetes research and clinical practice, 93(2), pp.139-149.
Petrak, F., Baumeister, H., Skinner, T.C., Brown, A. and Holt, R.I., 2015. Depression and
diabetes: treatment and health-care delivery. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 3(6),
pp.472-485.
Thomas, S.L., Wakerman, J. and Humphreys, J.S., 2015. Ensuring equity of access to primary
health care in rural and remote Australia-what core services should be locally
available?. International journal for equity in health, 14(1), p.111.
Thomas, S.L., Zhao, Y., Guthridge, S.L. and Wakerman, J., 2014. The cost-effectiveness of
primary care for Indigenous Australians with diabetes living in remote Northern Territory
communities. The Medical Journal of Australia, 200(11), pp.658-662.
West, M., Chuter, V., Munteanu, S. and Hawke, F., 2017.Defining the gap: a systematic review
of the difference in rates of diabetes-related foot complications in Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Australians and non-Indigenous Australians. Journal of foot and ankle research, 10(1),
p.48.
Xie, J., Foreman, J.R., Keel, S., Van Wijngaarden, P., Taylor, H. and Dirani, M., 2017.
Adherence to diabetic eye examination guidelines in Australia–The National Eye Health Survey
(NEHS). Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 58(8), pp.2895-2895.
Minges, K.E., Zimmet, P., Magliano, D.J., Dunstan, D.W., Brown, A. and Shaw, J.E., 2011.
Diabetes prevalence and determinants in Indigenous Australian populations: A systematic
review. Diabetes research and clinical practice, 93(2), pp.139-149.
Petrak, F., Baumeister, H., Skinner, T.C., Brown, A. and Holt, R.I., 2015. Depression and
diabetes: treatment and health-care delivery. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 3(6),
pp.472-485.
Thomas, S.L., Wakerman, J. and Humphreys, J.S., 2015. Ensuring equity of access to primary
health care in rural and remote Australia-what core services should be locally
available?. International journal for equity in health, 14(1), p.111.
Thomas, S.L., Zhao, Y., Guthridge, S.L. and Wakerman, J., 2014. The cost-effectiveness of
primary care for Indigenous Australians with diabetes living in remote Northern Territory
communities. The Medical Journal of Australia, 200(11), pp.658-662.
West, M., Chuter, V., Munteanu, S. and Hawke, F., 2017.Defining the gap: a systematic review
of the difference in rates of diabetes-related foot complications in Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Australians and non-Indigenous Australians. Journal of foot and ankle research, 10(1),
p.48.
Xie, J., Foreman, J.R., Keel, S., Van Wijngaarden, P., Taylor, H. and Dirani, M., 2017.
Adherence to diabetic eye examination guidelines in Australia–The National Eye Health Survey
(NEHS). Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 58(8), pp.2895-2895.
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