Indigenous Knowledges and Western Knowledges in Environmental Education
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This paper explores the differences between Indigenous and Western worldviews in relation to the environment/land and argues for a "two-worlds" approach in environmental education that engages both Indigenous and Western knowledges.
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97Canadian Journal of Environmental Education, 17, 2012 Indigenous Knowledges and Western Knowledges in Environmental Education: Acknowledging the Tensions f Benefits of a “Two-Worlds” Approach Julie Kapyrka & Mark Dockstator, Trent University, Canada Abstract Indigenous worldviews and Western worldviews stand in stark contrast to ea otherinmanyways,includingtheirperspectivesregardingtheEartha resources.Typicallythedifferencesbetweenthesetwophilosophiesof highlighted and placed into an antagonistic relationship that seems irreconci Thispaperupholdsthatwithinthistensionthereisagreatopportunity learningandformutualunderstanding.Weargueforusinga“two-wor approachthatengagesbothIndigenousknowledgesandWesternknow withinenvironmentaleducation.A“two-worlds”approachhasthecapac toenlightenbotheducatorsandstudentsandpromoterelationship-buil betweenIndigenousandnon-Indigenouspeoplesandtheirrespectivecu understandings.Twoworldviewscanbedrawnupontocreatecollabora models and solutions to address our collective environmental challenges. Resume Il y a sur plusieurs plans un contraste frappant entre les perspectives autoch occidentale du monde, particulièrement dans leur conception de la Terre et d ressources. En règle générale, les différences entre ces deux philosophies dé en rapports antagonistes donnant lieu à première vue à un conflit irréconcilia maisellespeuventcréerdesoccasionsd’apprentissageetdecompréh mutuelle.Nousinvoquonsuneapprocheréunissantces«deuxmondes mettantenjeuetlessavoirsautochtones,etlesconnaissancesoccide sein de l’éducation environnementale. Ce genre d’approche permet d’éclaire leséducateursquelesélèves,etdetisserdesliensentrelesautocht non-autochtonesetleurconceptionculturellerespective.Onpeuts’insp deux représentations du monde pour créer des modèles de collaboration et t des solutions aux défis environnementaux que nous partageons. Keywords:Indigenous knowledges, Western knowledges, environmental edu tion, “two-worlds” pedagogical approaches, decolonization
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98Julie Kapyrka & Mark Dockstator Facing our Environmental Future Together In today’s world of global climate change, concern for the environment is inten- sifying and receiving more attention on a universal scale. Environmental pro- grams in universities and colleges are growing and enrolment is expanding. Als increasing is the attention that Western science is giving to Indigenous know- ledges to address the environmental challenges that are degrading the earth, a well as the attention being turned to Elders’ intimate knowledge of the land for insight and solutions. Indigenousknowledgesinherentlyincludeenvironmentalorland-based knowledgebecausetheystresstheimportanceoftheholisticconnection all living beings to Creation and the Earth as well as all relationships between these forces—relationships of humans to humans, to animals, to plants, to the elements, to the spirit world, and to the cosmos. Environmental education pro- grams in general are taught from a Western perspective and typically do not engage with Indigenous knowledges. The qualities identified in this paper for both Indigenous and Western knowledge systems represent indicative tenden- cies within a myriad of diversity. We recommend that the reader understand these qualities cautiously to avoid any overgeneralizations or categorize them as rigid, monolithic, or definitive. We argue that a more inclusive pedagogical approach to environmental studies and/or education through the acknowledge- ment of Indigenous knowledges into its curriculum delivery processes would no only enhance environmental understandings, but also better prepare students and instructors to effectively address the world’s growing ecological concerns. Thereareseveralalreadyestablishedpost-secondaryenvironmentalpr grams that uphold such inclusive models. Our experience and observations in upholding such models show that the most successful seem to be those that engage with both Western knowledges and Indigenous knowledges (see also Anuik & Gillies, 2012; Ball, 2004; Bartlett, Marshall, Marshall, & Iwama, in press Donald, 2009, 2012; Fitznor, 2005; Gross, 2005, 2010; Hatcher & Bartlett, 2010 Iwama,Marshall,Marshall,&Bartlett,2009;Kovach,2005,2009a,2009b, 2010).AlthoughWesternperspectivesandIndigenousperspectivesregard the environment/land seem to stand in stark contrast to one another, it is within this tension that differences can ultimately work together to advance deeper understandings. This paper will highlight the differences between Indigenous worldviews and Western worldviews in relation to the environment/land, as wel as discuss the detrimental effects of the hegemonic Western idea of education and colonialism on Indigenous peoples and their lands. We then move to a dis- cussion of the need to decolonize environmental education and suggest using a“two-worlds”approach.Ourexperienceinthedeliveryofthispedagogi modelhasresultedinpositiveimpactsonstudentsbothpersonallyandc lectively, in terms of enhancing understandings between divergent knowledge systems and the building of respectful relationships between Indigenous and
99Indigenous Knowledges and Western Knowledges in Environmental Educ settler populations. We also comment on the challenges and complexities o implementingsuchavision,andarguethataninclusivepedagogyin both Indigenous and Western worldviews and knowledges are acknowledge and engaged is the way forward for an enlightened, holistic, and socially jus environmental education for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous students. Indigenous Worldviews: Relationships, Responsibility, Reciprocit and Respect Indigenous worldviews observe knowledge differently from Western worldvi Shawn Wilson (2001), Opaskwayak Cree, emphasizes that one major differe between dominant Euro-Western paradigms and Indigenous paradigms is: …that those dominant paradigms build on the fundamental belief that knowledge is an individual entity: the researcher is an individual in search of knowledge, knowl- edge is something that is gained, and therefore, knowledge may be owned by an individual. An Indigenous paradigm comes from the fundamental belief that knowl- edgeissharedwithallcreation.Itisnotjustinterpersonalrelationships,orj with the research subjects I may be working with, but it is a relationship with all of creation. (p. 75) Fyre Jean Graveline (1998), Métis, explains that the idea of kinship is bas the concrete observation that each of us is totally dependent on everything “That which I exhale, the tree inhales. We live in a world of many circles; the circles go out into the universe and constitute our identity, our kinship, our tions” (p. 57). Similarly, Anishinaabe scholar Winona LaDuke (1999) advoca Native American teachings describe the relations all around—animals, fish, trees, androcks—asourbrothers,sisters,uncles,andgrandpas.Ourrelationstoea other, our prayers whispered across generations to our relatives, are what bind our cultures together. The protection, teachings, and gifts of our relatives have for gen- erations preserved our families. (p. 2) Susan Miller (2008), Seminole, adds that the Indigenous paradigm may b viewed as a way of relating to everything else in the cosmos: In Indigenous thought, people are seen as families or communities rather than in- dividuals. The pervasive importance of the family surpasses even its considerable importance in American and other non-Indigenous worldviews. Indigenous family encompasses the entire cosmos: Earth is the Mother; and the Sun, the Sky, or a powerful celestial entity is the Father. Every element of the cosmos has a place in the family. Everything is alive and has needs and rights. (p. 27) Thus, people must concern themselves with the health and well-being o everything in the cosmos just as they concern themselves with their familie and communities (Miller, 2008). There is an inherent responsibility attached
100Julie Kapyrka & Mark Dockstator this way of thinking about oneself in relation to the entire cosmos, grounded in relationships, and how one relates to all of Creation. GregoryCajete,Tewaeducator(2004),surmisesthat“NativeAmerican philosophy” is ecological philosophy because it incorporates information gained from“interactionofbody,mind,soul,andspiritwithallaspectsofnatur (p. 46). Cajete’s approach is a philosophy of Native science: Native science reflects a celebration of renewal—the ultimate aim is not explaining an objectified universe, but rather learning about and understanding responsibilities and relationships and celebrating those that humans establish with the world...Na- tive scientific philosophy reflects an inclusive and moral universe. All things, events, and forms of energy unfold and infold themselves in a contextual field of the micro and macro universe. In other words, Native science is inclusive of all the ways that humans are capable of knowing and understanding the world. (p. 55) The key distinctive assumption of an Indigenous worldview is that the cos- mos is a living being and that the cosmos and all its parts have consciousness (Miller, 2008). Because of this assumption, the relationship between humans an all parts of the cosmos inherently speak to notions of reciprocity and respect. Another central principle of the Indigenous paradigm is the idea of recipro- cal interaction through which all relationships must be balanced. Miller (2009) articulates: “as the terrestrial Mother and celestial Father nurture the human communities as children, human communities then reciprocate with gifts, grati- tude, and right behaviour, often understood of as ‘balance’” (p. 28). Miller furth explains that this balance means that no member of the cosmic family should take more than they give or give more than they receive and, furthermore, ove lapping this concept of reciprocity is the concept of respect. Cree scholar, Evely Steinhauer (2002), explains that according to Cree Elders, showing respect is a basic law of life: Respect regulates how we treat mother earth, the plants, the animals and our broth- ers and sisters of all races. Respect means you listen intently to others’ ideas that you do not insist that your idea prevails. By listening intently you show honour, con- sider the well being of others, and treat others with kindness and courtesy. (p. 72) One of the starkest differences between Indigenous and Western worldview in regard to the environment/land is in terms of spiritual relationships. Marilyn Verney(2004),Dinéscholar,states:“TotrulyunderstandAmericanIndian philosophy one must first understand our spiritual relationship, our connection with the land, with Mother Earth” (p. 134). Lewis Cardinal (2001), Cree, reveals this sentiment in his discussion of an Indigenous perspective: In Latin it means “born of the land” or “springs from the land,” which is a context. We can take that to mean “born of its context,” born of that environment. When you create something from an Indigenous perspective, therefore, you create it from that environment, from that land in which it sits. Indigenous peoples with their traditions
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101Indigenous Knowledges and Western Knowledges in Environmental Educ and customs are shaped by the environment, by the land. They have a spiritual, emotional, and physical relationship to that land. It speaks to them; it gives them their responsibility for stewardship; and it sets out a relationship. (p. 180) Species of animals and plants are siblings or close relatives of human co munities among many Indigenous peoples and thus must be treated respec fully as they too have rights and needs. Miller (2009) poignantly affirms tha “because everything in the cosmos is sacred, all human activities are sacred government, education, agriculture, hunting, manufacture, architecture, rec tion. Nothing is secular” (p. 28). She reminds us that in light of this reality th everything must be done with this in mind: “The well-being and even the su vival of Indigenous peoples and the living cosmos depend on the integrity o this entire set of relationships” (p. 28). Indigenous paradigms and/or worldv are inclusive of all the cosmos as well as the spirit world: they are based in relationship, responsibility, reciprocity and respect—and, most importantly, intimately connected to the Earth and her processes. This intimacy with the Earth results from long-term sustainable relations thatIndigenouspeoplesdevelopedovermillenniawiththeirspecific environments/landsandisupheldthroughtheirlivingancestralknowle andteachings.DwayneDonald(2009),Métisscholar,emphasizesthat longevity of the relationships maintained by Indigenous peoples with their la is significant and speaks to an inherent sovereignty: Thislong-termhabitationhassupportedandperpetrateddeeplyrootedspiritu and meta-physical relationships with the land (and other entities) that thoroughly inform and infuse the specific cultural practices and linguistic conventions of the people. Indigenous communities are considered unique, in relation to other distinct communities, because these venerable connections to land and place have been maintained and continue to find expression in communities today. In this sense, then, Indigenous peoples, as descendants of the original inhabitants, are seen as the holders and practitioners of asui generissovereignty in their traditional lands that typically finds expression as wisdom tradition. (p. 19) Thus, Indigenous worldviews are much more than great amassed bodies knowledge: they are living knowledges and representative of ancient relatio ships that characterize the distinctiveness of these peoples and the deep co nectivity to the environments/lands in which they live: Indigenous worldview are alive and dynamic. Colonialism, Western Hegemony, and Decolonization Most Western educators believe their approaches to be based on value-free niques and thinking; however, they are still dominated by philosophical idea that developed in the 17thto 19thcenturies and are centred on the separation of humans from nature, or humans from their natural environment. Willie Ermi
102Julie Kapyrka & Mark Dockstator (2007), Cree scholar and ethicist, upholds that one of the “festering irritants” for Indigenous peoples, in their encounter with the West, is “the brick wall of a deeply embedded belief and practice of Western universality” (p. 198) and central to this belief is the propagation of a singular worldview, a monoculture with a claim to one model of humanity and of society. Jessica Ball (2004) suggests that non-Indigenous academics need to recog- nize and accept responsibility for the potentially colonizing and acculturative effects of “mainstream” curricula: “When a mainstream, standardized, one-size fits-all curriculum is all that is offered, too often the result is a homogenizing, monocultural, colonizing approach to community and human service develop- ment that is inappropriate for the varied social ecologies of Indigenous children and families” (p. 457). Maori scholar, Linda Tuhiwai Smith (1999) articulates tha Indigenous peoples’ perspectives have been silenced, misrepresented, ridiculed and even condemned in academic as well as popular discourses. ColonialismnotonlynegativelyaffectsIndigenouspeoples’experience inspheresofacademiaandscholarshipbutitalsodisruptsthereciproca relationships that Indigenous peoples hold with their lands. In particular, the forcedremovalofIndigenouspeoplesfromtheirlandshashadlongterm consequences by severing a variety of relationships held in reciprocal balance between themselves and all of Creation, integral to a sustainable and healthy way of life, or what Miller (2009) has called “Indigenous environmentalism.” Indigenous environmentalism is an expression of relationships. It recognizes that human communities and their environments are inconceivable except as a single, integrated whole, each part dependant on the others for health and survival. Be- cause Indigenous communities depend on local resources, degradation of their envi- ronments or removal from those environments injures them rapidly. The Indigenous activists’ slogan, “We are the land, and the land is us,” encapsulates this set of rela- tionships. Indigenous peoples promote biodiversity and environmental health with respectful, reciprocal, and holistic treatment of land and resources. (p. 29) It must be emphasized that Indigenous environmentalism is very different from Western environmentalism. Marie Wilson, a Gitksan-Wet’sumet’en tribal councillor, sums up this difference in the following statement: IhavetosaythattheIndianattitudetowardthenaturalworldisdifferentfrom environmentalists. I have had the awful feeling that when we are finished dealing with the courts and our land claims, we will then have to battle the environmental- ists and they will not understand why. I feel quite sick at this prospect because the environmentalists want these beautiful places kept in a state of perfection: to not touch it, rather to keep it pure. So that we can leave our jobs and for two weeks we can venture into the wilderness and enjoy this ship in a bottle. In a way this is like denying that life is happening constantly in these wild places, that change is always occurring. Human life must be there too. Humans have requirements and they are going to have to use some of the life in these places. (cited in Smith, 2005, pp. 63-64)
103Indigenous Knowledges and Western Knowledges in Environmental Educ Western thinking environmentalists tend to think of the land in terms of protectionism and conservation (no resource extraction and limited or regul use of the land) while Indigenous peoples look to the land in terms of engag with it by upholding relationships and responsibilities (hunting, gathering fo and medicines, and engaging in ceremony with the land). Despite these diff ences, Western environmentalism and Indigenous environmentalism can wo together and utilize ideologies from both systems of thought as a “two-worl approach: protect and conserve the land for activities that espouse (Indigen respectful, reciprocal engagement in relationship with it. Similarly, Leonard Tsuji and Elise Ho (2002) refer to Traditional Environm Knowledge(TEK)andWesternscienceandhowtheoftenstateddiffer (objective versus subjective, qualitative versus quantitative, the atom versu oral versus written, etc.) are in effect the same idea, but that the epistemol foundations such as data collection, storage, and interpretation are differen They suggest that TEK and Western science “are clearly different variations universal truth” (p. 346). Importantly, they also stress that although there e common ground between them that “integration” of the two should not be a goal but rather that TEK and Western science should be viewed as “separat complimentary sources of information and wisdom,” and “where practitione of both would benefit from a reciprocal flow of knowledge” (p. 346). Donald (2009, 2012) draws on his mixed Papaschase Cree and European ancestryandhasdevelopeda“decolonizingresearchsensibility”hec “Métissage.” He describes Métissage as: a way to hold together the ambiguous, layered, complex, and conflictual character o Aboriginal and Canadian relations without the need to deny, assimilate, hybridize, o conclude. It describes a particular way to pay attention to these tensions and bring their ambiguous and difficult character to expression through reading and writing. (2012, p. 536) Donald’sMétissagepurposefullymixesandjuxtaposesdiverseform texts,bothIndigenousandnon-Indigenous,asawaytorevealthatm sources and perspectives influence experience and memories. He highlights importance of relationality and how texts and lives are relational and braide together rather than independent. “Colonialism is a shared condition where colonizers and colonized come to know each other very well” (Donald, 2009 p. 6). Donald argues that curricular and pedagogical work dedicated to the g of decolonization in Canada must engage critically with the colonial nature o these relationships connecting Aboriginal peoples and Canadians. Métissage a way to reconceptualize and decolonize historical consciousness in the con of teaching and learning today. Decolonizing mainstream education will ultimately include the engagem and implementation of Indigenous pedagogies within Western academic con texts. Margaret Kovach (2009a), Plains Cree and Saulteaux scholar, suggest
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104Julie Kapyrka & Mark Dockstator while colonialism has interrupted the organic transmission of Indigenous knowl- edges, many Indigenous peoples recognize that for their cultural knowledge to thrive, it must live in many sites, including Western education and research. Th process will entail active participation in projects of decolonization (see Root, 2009) and that mainstream environmental educators must make an attempt to reflect critically on the nature, scope, and processes of colonialism in Canada. Understanding the World Without Harming It Thecurrentmainstreamzeitgeistpromotesamodelforlivingthatsuppo theprioritiesofamaterialisticsocietyinwhichcapitalisticidealsseeming justifyunlimitedresourceextraction—andthistypeoflifestyleisalarming unsustainable. According to Kovach (2009a), many young people are increasing attractedtoIndigenousapproachesbecausethisgenerationisseeking ways to understand the world without harming it. The way towards a caring consciousness and sustainability in environmental education can be built upon the acknowledgement of and engagement with Indigenous knowledge systems It is the human disconnect from nature that stimulates what Donald (2009) refers to as “the perpetration of epistemic and institutional violence” (p. 19) an it is the denial of this land connectivity that allows this violent exploitation to continue. He argues that Indigenous insights about the land and relationships t that land should be upheld as curricular and pedagogical considerations becaus “they belie the assumed universality of conventional Eurowestern approaches” (p. 19) and he believes that there is much to be learned from holding different knowledge systems in tension. Similarly, Angayluqaq Oscar Kawagley (2001), Yupiaq scholar, points out that there are many alternative approaches that are nature-friendly and sustainable in the Eurocentric world of science and technol- ogy and that they “await the time when global societies transcend consumerism and materialism and orient themselves toward conservation and regeneration” (p. 206). He stresses that Indigenous societies worldwide “have much to share with the modern world” and he advocates for changes to education systems in which Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous peoples learn both ways of learning and doing, “so that we can begin to develop a caring consciousness and technology that is kind to us as humans, kind to the spiritual, and kind to the environment” (p. 206). This can be accomplished through a commitment to a “two-worlds” approach to environmental education. A “Two-Worlds” Approach: Enhanced Understandings and Meaningful Relatio Approaching environmental education through a “two-worlds” pedagogy offers both students and educators opportunities to expand their understandings at the intersection of difference between Indigenous and Western knowledges as well as ameliorate and strengthen relationships between settler populations an Indigenous peoples.A “two-worlds” approach, one that upholds both Indigenou
105Indigenous Knowledges and Western Knowledges in Environmental Educ and Western worldviews, has been accomplished in various academic locale across Canada and the United States.Lawrence Gross (2005, 2010), Minnes Chippewa, engages with what he calls a “blended” teaching method that dr from American Indian pedagogical approaches as well as methods traditiona the academy. Marilyn Iwama and Cheryl Bartlett, working closely with Mi’km ElderAlbertMarshall,haverecentlyofferedan“integrativescience”u “Two-EyedSeeing”approachthatdrawstogetherthestrengthsofWe and Mi’kmaq knowledges (Bartlett et al., in press; Iwama et al., 2009). Thes researchers explain that by engaging the overlapping perspective of each “ thereisaguidingprincipleofbinocularitytotheirintegrativescience experiences a wider, deeper, and more generative “field of view” than migh either of these perspectives in isolation. Similar to Donald’s “Métissage,” “T EyedSeeing”emphasizesaweavingbackandforthbetweenknowled which each strand is necessary to the process. Jonathan Anuik and Carmen Gillies (2012) apply Indigenous teachings to assistinthecollaborationoftheheartandbrainbecausetheyargue mainstream education systems, there is a disconnect between the two and true or holistic learning cannot occur. They share the philosophy that “learn must enable the heart, brain, body, and spirit to collaborate to evoke an out ing of critical thought and personal transformation” (p. 75). Kovach has also done extensive work in bringing Indigenous methodologies into the classroo and upholds the importance of creating space in the academy for Indigenou ways of knowing (2005, 2009a, 2009b, 2010). Kovach’s work offers concept possibilities for research that rests upon tribal perspectives, bridging Plains knowledges and their methods in a manner translatable to Western researc Laara Fitznor (2005), Cree mixed heritage, incorporates traditional Aborigin learning methods of sharing, learning and talking circles for healing, teachin and decision-making in her courses. Oneofthemostnotableexamplesofa“two-worlds”approachinc theIndigenousEnvironmentalStudiesProgram(IES)atTrentUniversity isacollaborativeeffortbetweentheDepartmentofIndigenousStudie the Environmental and Resource Science/Studies Program and is designed t give students the necessary skills and knowledge to work in the growing fie of Indigenous environmental issues. The program uses Indigenous knowledg systems, Western science, and information from the social and environmen sciences to explore local, regional, national, and international environmenta issues impacting Indigenous peoples (Trent University, 2011). As of the 200 2010 calendar year, the IES program has offered a B.A. or a B.Sc. as well as DiplomainIndigenousEnvironmentalStudies.Trentisthefirstunivers North America and worldwide to grant university-level degrees in Indigenou EnvironmentalStudies.LeanneSimpson(2002),Anishinaabeandformer Director of IES at Trent University, highlights the importance of the following concepts in terms of respectful and inclusive curricula: Indigenous knowledg
106Julie Kapyrka & Mark Dockstator must be the foundation of Indigenous environmental education, Elders must be included as experts in program delivery, the programs must be grounded in Indigenous pedagogies—utilizing Indigenous epistemologies and language in their delivery, and students must have the opportunity to connect to the land in terms of “being out on the land” (p. 19). A“two-worlds”approachtoenvironmentaleducationacknowledgesthe differences between the knowledge systems of both Indigenous and Western perspectives—it upholds tenets of both methods of learning. A crucial aspect of this approach is that it does not merge two knowledge systems together, nor d it paste bits of Indigenous knowledges onto Western curricula, rather it avoids knowledge domination and assimilation by engaging in a learning philosophy basedinequitableinclusion.BothIndigenousandWesternepistemologies areacknowledgedinequalmeasurebytheirownterms.Acrucialeleme involved in a “two-worlds” approach includes a fundamental requirement for teacherstoanimatetheprincipleofholism,engagingmentally,emotiona spiritually, and physically with all topics covered in a course. To engage in this new approach, it is critical to acknowledge a specific analysis of the past and th historical influence of Indigenous-settler relations on educational practices. The importance of storytelling as pedagogy and highlighting personal narratives an self-location of both students and instructors will facilitate this necessity. Simpson (2002) also recommends that educators provide space for student angerandconfusionbetweenWesternscienceandIndigenousknowledge and that this is paramount as most students will go through a transformative experience as they learn another perspective/paradigm. It has been our combin experiencesteachinginpost-secondaryinstitutionsthatwhenstudentsar introducedtoIndigenousenvironmentalperspectives,theynotonlybecom enlightened but also very angry and upset. The most repeated question we hea from our students after they have processed this new perspective is, “Why wer we not taught this before?” This is symptomatic of the reality of the absence of Indigenous perspectives in the Canadian education system in general and is indicative of the continued perpetration of colonial practices. Concurrently, however, these same students become intellectually inspired, spirituallymoved,andphysicallypromptedtolearnmoreand/orto“do something.”Theyexudeattitudesofaweandrespectwhentheyengage Indigenous ways of thinking about the world that they had never experienced before. Most students have been so positively impacted by their experience of learning about Indigenous perspectives that their own lives have changed for the better. This change was highlighted through the writing exercises that we ask students to complete for our courses: students describe personal accounts of how their thinking has become more aware, inclusive, and respectful of the natural environment and their relationship with it. They passionately suggest that all “science students should know this stuff” and “should be required to take these classes.”
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107Indigenous Knowledges and Western Knowledges in Environmental Educ The amplification of difference that is upheld in terms of a “two-worlds” approach toenvironmental education offers a more enlightened and enriche learningexperienceforbothIndigenousandnon-Indigenousstudentsa educators. The “two-worlds” approach creates understandings between the groups. As Ray Barnhardt and Angayluqaq Oscar Kawagley (2005) suggest, type of pedagogical lens will support processes “to reconstitute the relation betweenIndigenouspeoplesandtheimmigrantsocietiesinwhichthe embedded” (p. 20).Engagement in a “two-worlds” approach to environmen education has the potential to facilitate the movement towards reconciliatio between Indigenous and Western peoples, necessary for the reconstitution new relationship. Challenges: Engaging With the Tension Althougha“two-worlds”approachtoenvironmentaleducationiseasily gested as a pedagogical model, there are a plethora of practical and theore challenges involved in realizing this type of instruction. As Kovach (2010) su gests, “scholars have argued to include Indigenous knowledges in college a university curricula but few have addressed how teachers can effect change their practices to centre Indigenous knowledges and experiences” (p. 65). S concerns are the risks of bringing cultural knowledges into Western academ spaces and the misrepresentations and/or appropriations that often accomp them.Kovach(2009a)highlightsthisfear:“Thetransformativepotenti academia in welcoming diverse knowledges is significant, but at what cost t Indigenous peoples?” (p. 12). Although most mainstream educators will con with the idea of an integration of Indigenous perspectives into their curricul practices, Lorenzo Cherubini (2009) warns that most will implement a shallo integration with an incoherent approach to Indigenous knowledges, which c result in a superficial treatment of culture and a reinforcement of stereotype Thisproblemarisesoutofadisconcertingrealitythatmostteache candidates are non-Indigenous and enter their teacher certification year lac anyknowledgeofIndigenouspeoplesorIndigenouspedagogies(Cheru &Hodson,2008).Addedtothisrealityandposinganotherchallenge implementing a “two-worlds” approach to environmental education is the lo number of Indigenous academics available to participate in the realization o this vision. This situation is symptomatic of the lack of curriculum regarding Indigenous peoples and perspectives in current mainstream K-12 models an has been identified as a leading catalyst of poor retention of Indigenous stu in educational programs (Cherubini & Hodson, 2008). Extensive studies hav been conducted in terms of the processes necessary to change the reality o Indigenous peoples in public and post-secondary institutions (Cherubini, 200 Cherubini, Kitchen, & Engemann, 2008; Haig-Brown, 2008); however, we arg that it is also the reality of non-Indigenous instructors within public educatio systemsthatrequiresradicalchange.Ermine(2007)pointsoutthatt
108Julie Kapyrka & Mark Dockstator challenge to Western educators is to understand and confront their own hidden interests, unconscious attitudes, and ignorant assumptions that animate Weste dealings with Indigenous peoples. A “great divide” still exists between Indigenous and Western knowledges which is then reflected or reproduced in curriculum. For example, to posit real- ity as a construct of interrelatedness—with a spiritual dimension—can be seen as an irrational leap to many Western educators because Western knowledge or science has largely concerned itself with the study of a physical and rational reality (Iwama et al., 2009). Honouring the interdependency of all beings in all aspects of being—spiritual, emotional, physical and mental—and surviving an academic world that privileges the ‘intellectual’ is a difficult task for the imple- mentation of Indigenous perspectives in mainstream or Eurocentric education systems. To meet these epistemological challenges, Hatcher and Bartlett (2010) sug- gest that ultimately this situation invites instructors and administrators to ex- plore their own identities as educators. They point out that “it will take enor- mous courage to question how one perceives and relates to one’s own epis- temic values and traditions, particularly when these ideologies are substantially different from the principles of Indigenous knowledges” (p. 14). Iwama et al. (2009) manage this divide by interweaving epistemologies and methodologies, and by accepting that “any translation is sometimes a foolish endeavour like trying to scientifically replicate the inexplicable spiritual” (p. 19). Although such epistemic divides are discouraging, the authors uphold that they are also oppor tunities for creativity: “refusing compromise, we seek out ways that perspective complement each other” (p. 19). Similarly, we find that the differences between Indigenous and Western per spectives actually do complement each other in terms of offering alternative “two-worlds” approaches and understandings in addressing a common issue. When we ask our students to write essays, we ask that they not only reference evidence that supports their arguments, but also materials that negate their th ses. Many are shocked and uncomfortable as most are used to only using refer- ences that agree with their stances. We teach our students that it is important know both sides of an argument for the benefit of a more complete view of the issue. The effect of this teaching strategy on students better prepares them to come to an understanding of the benefits of holistic learning and the acknowl- edgement of different worldviews in a “two-worlds” approach. Ermine(2007)suggeststhatreconcilingworldviewsisthefundamenta problemofculturalencounters:“Shiftingourperspectivestorecognizeth theIndigenous-Westencounterisaboutthoughtworldsmayalsoremind thatframeworksorparadigmsarerequiredtoreconcilethesesolitudes”; advocates a “theory of ethical space” as one such framework (p. 201). He ex- plains that the idea of an ethical space, produced by divergent perspectives of the world, entertains the notion of “engagement” which in turn stimulates a dialogue that is concerned with providing space for exploring fields of thought.
109Indigenous Knowledges and Western Knowledges in Environmental Educ Ermine argues that the ethical space, “at the field of convergence for dispar systems, can become a refuge of possibility in cross-cultural relations” and “the new partnership model of the ethical space, in a cooperative spirit betw Indigenous peoples and Western institutions, will create new currents of tho that flow in different directions and overrun the old ways of thinking” (p. 20 Engaging in such initiatives is not easy and is contextually multi-layered Within the multi-layered context of working within and between two-worlds, another challenge to the implementation of this approach is the decision(s) whichIndigenousknowledgestoinclude.Indigenouspeoplesareimme diverseandthusaretheknowledgestheykeep.Asinstructorsofthis worlds” approach in courses, we would argue that there is indeed a “commo veneer”amongIndigenousknowledgesaroundtheworldbutthatthey also extremely specific to the peoples and places that hold them. We strong suggest that environmental educators begin with the Indigenous peoples an knowledgesinwhoseterritoriestheyaresituated.Forexample,traditi territories in Ontario include those of the Anishinaabe/Ojibwe, Haudenosaun Algonquin,andCreepeoples;hence,instructorsshouldseektoinclude environmental perspectives of these nations within the content of their cour Thiswillrequirerelationshipbuildingbetweenenvironmentaleducators Indigenouspeoplesandisafundamentalfirststepintheentireproce implementing a “two-worlds” approach. As Kovach (2009a) aptly states: “In new millennium, engagement with Indigenous knowledges means engagem with Indigenous peoples, communities, and cultures” (p. 172). EngagementwithIndigenousknowledgeswillrequirespacewithin academy to teach “two-worlds” approach courses. The ethical space referre by Ermine (2007) provides a neutral location to begin this process. This ethi space is predicated upon the creation of new relationships between Indigen and non-Indigenous peoples and rests upon what Donald (2009) calls “an et of historical consciousness”: …this ethic holds that the past occurs simultaneously in the present and influences how we conceptualize the future. It requires that we see ourselves related to, and implicated in, the lives of those who have gone before us and those yet to come. It i an ethical imperative to recognize the significance of the relationships we have with others, how our histories and experiences are layered and position us in relation to each other, and how our futures as people similarly are tied together. It is also an ethical imperative to see that, despite our varied place-based-cultures and knowl- edge systems, we live in the world together with others and must constantly think andactwithreferencetotheserelationships.Anyknowledgewegainabout world interweaves us more deeply with these relationships and gives us life. (p. 7) Upholding an “ethic of historical consciousness” and engaging in the neutra location of “ethical space” within the academy, environmental educators ca deliver curricula through a “two-worlds” pedagogical approach in a meaning and effective way.
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110Julie Kapyrka & Mark Dockstator Enhanced Environmental Education: Creating Respectful Powerful Relationshi Moving closer together through “two-worlds” teaching is undoubtedly a chal- lenging process as shifting paradigmatic structures and the transformation in the relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples will undoubt edly take time to unfold. Kovach’s (2009b) words are reassuring as she states: “ItisnotimpossibleforIndigenousresearcherstocrackopenthespaces the academy for our own way of learning...it is only hard” (p. 73). Although this process will indeed be “hard,” engaging in the tension that exists between Indigenous and Western worldviews offers positive outcomes that could have farreachingbenefitsforbothIndigenousandnon-Indigenouspeoples,and in environmental education, moves disparate knowledges and peoples closer together to offer an opportune stage for the future. This approach is inherently a decolonizing practice through which the differences between Indigenous and Western knowledges are acknowledged, highlighted, and engaged. This pedagogical strategy has the potential to inform the next generation ofenvironmentaleducatorsandscholarsatadeeperandheightenedlev ofunderstanding.Throughtheequalacknowledgement,engagement,and application of both Indigenous and Western knowledge systems to environmen education,astrongnewrelationshipwillemergebetweenIndigenousand non-Indigenouspeoples.Thisnewrelationshipbuiltuponreciprocityand respect would not only offer the benefit of an enhanced and more complete understanding of the natural world, but also provide the resources and capacity toimaginecollaborativesolutionstoaddressourcommonenvironmental challenges for the Earth and all of humanity, now and into the future. Notes on Contributors Julie Kapyrkaholds a PhD in Indigenous Studies and teaches in the Indigenous Environmental Studies Program at Trent University and the Ecological Restora- tion Program at Fleming College. She specializes in research ethics and protoco pertaining to Indigenous peoples and contexts.Contact:river1@nexicom.net Mark Dockstatorholds a Doctorate of Jurisprudence and is a Professor of Indig Studies at Trent University. Mark is also a lawyer specializing in Aboriginal issue PresidentoftheAboriginalResearchInstitute,andheisamember of the Nations Confederacy (Oneida).Contact:mdockstator@trentu.ca References Anuik, J. & Gillies, C. L. (2012). Indigenous knowledge in post-secondary educators’ practices Nourishing the learning spirit.Canadian Journal of Higher Education,42(1), 63-79.
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