Comprehensive Report on Error Detection and Correction Methods

This report provides a detailed analysis of error detection and correction mechanisms in computer networking. It begins with an introduction to error detection and correction, explaining how errors occur during data transmission due to noise and other disruptions. The report identifies three main types of errors: single-bit errors, multiple-bit errors, and burst errors, detailing their characteristics and common occurrences. It then explores various error detection mechanisms, including parity checking, two-dimensional parity checks, cyclic redundancy checks (CRC), and checksums, explaining how each technique works to identify data corruption. A comparative analysis of checksum, parity checking, and CRC techniques is presented, highlighting their respective pros and cons. Furthermore, the report introduces forward error correction (FEC) mechanisms, contrasting block code FEC and convolution code FEC, and discusses their advantages and disadvantages. The document emphasizes the importance of these techniques in ensuring reliable data delivery across networks, making it a comprehensive resource for understanding error handling in computer networking. Desklib provides access to this document and numerous other study resources for students.

Running head: INTERMEDIATE COMPUTER NETWORKING
Intermediate Computer Networking
[Name of the Student]
[Name of the University]
[Author name]

INTERMEDIATE COMPUTER NETWORKING
Table of Contents
Part A:..............................................................................................................................................3
1. Error detection and Correction Mechanism:................................................................................3
2. Types of errors:............................................................................................................................3
3. Types of error detection:..............................................................................................................5
4. Comparison between Error Detection Techniques......................................................................8
5. Introduction to Forward Error Correction mechanisms.............................................................10
6. Comparison between Forward Error Detection Techniques.....................................................11
References:....................................................................................................................................12

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Part A:
1. Error detection and Correction Mechanism:
Error generally occurs when there is a data mismatch between the output data and the input data.
The smoot transmission of the digital signal occurring in the channel is disrupted by the noise
that is present inside the channel and this this initially leads to addition errors in the binary bits as
well. During the time of transmission of the message, the noise might be associated with
scrambling the digital message which would be initially leading to the corruption of the data
(Clark Jr & Cain, 2013). Due to all this reason there exists certain error detection codes which
are to be added to the message at the time of transmission in order to detect the incorrect
message which would be followed by the correction of the incorrect message. One of the most
popular error detection code includes the parity check. The designing of the error detection codes
are done in such a way so s to figure out the original message after the occurrence of the
disruption. In case when a signal is received that is totally different from the signal which was
supposed to the received then it is confirmed that there exists an error. Error correction
mechanism is used after the detection of the errors and this mechanism is associated with
retransmitting the signal by correcting the signal.
2. Types of errors:
The errors in the code generally occurs when the value 1 changes to value 0 and when the value
0 changes to value 1. Generally errors are of three types which generally occurs when the signal
is transmitted containing a particular data (Bai et al., 2012). The errors mainly includes the
following:

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A. Single bit error: In this type of error a single bit of the data which has been provided is
changed that is either 0 changes to 1 or 1 changes to 0. This type of error can be better
understood from the figure provided below.
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
Fig 1: Single Bit Error
This type of errors are likely to be appearing in the single data transmission process. This
type of errors might be occurring during the parallel transmission of the data
B. Multiple bit error: In his type of errors two or more bits that are received which are
generally different from the state when transmitted. The position that the bits are having
might be different which means that the bits are not consecutive.
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0
Fig 2: Multiple Bit Error
From the figure it is clearly understandable that the three of the bits have changed between the
information that is sent and the information that is received (Liu, Reviriego & Maestro, 2012).
Change in single bit that is from 1 to 0
Data Sent
Data Received
Change in single bit that is from 1 to 0
Data Sent
Data Received

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This type of errors are common in parallel as well as in the serial communication which is
initially responsible for the creation of certain difficulties while detecting and correcting the bits.
C. Burst error: This type of error generally occurs when a set of bit gets altered in the
transmitted data and followed by this calculation of the error burst is done from the
starting of the error bit to the ending error bit (Sloan, Kumar & Bronevetsky, 2012). The
burst might be containing zero error items along with the error bits.
Fig 3: Burst Error
This type of errors are mostly seen in the serial communications in which the noises are
associated with interfering some of the bits in a sequence or in multiple bits (Mitchell &
Chen, 2014). The amount of bits which are corrupted are generally dependent upon the
rate of data and the duration of the noise. It is very difficult to correct this type of error as
they leads to incorporation of the detection in a complex way and the algorithms are also
corrected.

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3. Types of error detection:
There generally four error detection checks and this includes the following:
A. Parity checking or the One-dimensional Parity Check
B. Two-dimension Parity Check
C. Cyclic Redundancy check
D. Check Sum
The detection of the error is possible by the receiver of the signal and the detection of the
error is generally considered to be a technique which is associated with detecting a certain
amount of impairments which are to be introduced at the time of data transmission so as to
identify the problems. This type of mechanism is also associated with ensuring the fact that a
reliable data is being delivered in secure networks as well as in the networks which are
vulnerable to risks along with ensuring the fact that the data is being delivered with high
accuracy (Lopez-Molina, De Baets & Bustince, 2013). In case when a data is not detected or
not corrected then then it might lead to permanent loss of the data. The error detection
mechanism has been described below.
A. Parity checking or the One-dimensional Parity Check: This type of error detection
technique is considered to be the most common and the less expensive error detection
mechanism which is used for the purpose of detecting the errors. This type of technique
generally includes the redundant bit which is also known as the parity bit which is
presented to each and every data unit so as to make sure that the amount of 1s is present
in the unit and this also includes the parity which becomes even. The data blocks coming
from the source are presented in front of the check bit which is also known as the Parity

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Bit generator form (Leven & Schmalen, 2014). In this the parity of the 1 is included in
the block in case if it has any type of odd number of 1s which is known as ON bit. In a
similar way 0 is to be added if it contains an even number of 1s. Computation of the
parity bit is done in the receiving end from the received data bits which are then
compared with the parity that has been received.
B. Two-dimension Parity Check: This type of checking mechanism is used for the purpose
of improving the performance. This type of mechanism is associated with organizing the
bit blocks in a table format. For each and every row the parity check bits are calculated
and this are generally equivalent to the simple type of parity check bit. The calculation of
the parity blocks are also done for the columns as well. Initially both of this are sent
along with the data. In the receiving end all this bits are compared with the parity bits
which are calculated.
C. Cyclic Redundancy check: This type of checking mechanism is generally considered to
be the most powerful and the simplest way of detecting the errors. This type of technique
is generally based upon the binary division. The CRC is associated with appending a
sequence of redundant bit which is also known as the cyclic redundant bit at the end of
the data unit in order to have a resultant data unit which would exactly divisible by the
second binary number which is predetermined (Faqhruldin, El-Saadany & Zeineldin,
2014). At the receiving node the data units which comes in has been damaged during the
transmission and for this reason they are to be rejected.
D. Checksum: This is an error detection technique in which the data is divided into various
segments known as the k segment which are of m bits. At the side of the sender the
segments are generally added by making use of the 1’s compliment arithmetic in order to

INTERMEDIATE COMPUTER NETWORKING
have the sum. In order to have the checksum the sum is completed. Besides this the
checksum segment is also sent along with the segments of data. At the side of the reciver
all the received segments are generally added by making use of the 1’s compliment
arithmetic in order to obtain the sum. The entire sum is then complimented. In case if the
result is 0 then the data which is received would be accepted otherwise it would be
discarded (Li & De Lamare, 2012).
4. Comparison between Error Detection Techniques
The most popular 3 error detection techniques which is generally used for the purpose of
detecting the errors and this mainly includes the check sum, parity checking and cyclic
redundancy check.
Parity Checking Cyclic Redundancy
Check
Check Sum
Pros This is generally
considered to be one
of most popular and
the simplest way of
detecting the errors
which is generally
done by making use
This is generally
considered to be a
more thorough
method used for
detecting the errors.
Check sum is the
error detection
technique which is
generally much
simpler than the
CRC.

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of the additional bit
known as the parity
bit.
This type of
technique is
associated with
ensuring the fact that
the data integrity is
maintained along
with providing an
option so as to make
the troubleshooting
process much easier.
This type of
technique is very
much easy to
implement in te
binary hardware and
this is mainly due to
the reason that the
mathematical analysis
is very easy for the
CRC (Ahmed,
Mahmood & Hu,
2016).
This is generally
considered to be the
simples method
related to the
detection of the
errors. This is mainly
due to the reason that
the entire process of
error detection is
done by making
calculations of the
binary values of a
data which is
generally done by
considering certain
algorithms.
Cons All the errors cannot
be detected by
making use of the
CRC is not capable of
providing protection
from the data
Checksum is the error
detection technique
which is the oldest as

INTERMEDIATE COMPUTER NETWORKING
Parity checking and
for this reason this
technique is not used.
alterations which are
done intentionally.
compared to the CRC
or parity.
The expenses related
to parity check
technique is
comparatively more.
In this type of
technique Data
overflow might occur
which is one of the
major related to the
usage of the CRC
technique.
This type of
technique is only
capable of detecting
the single bit errors
5. Introduction to Forward Error Correction mechanisms
Forward error correction mechanism is considered to be a method associated with the obtaining
of the error control during the time of transmission of the data. In this the transmitter which is
source of the data is associated with the sending of the redundant data and the receiver which is
responsible for the collection of the data is associated with recognizing a partial portion of the

INTERMEDIATE COMPUTER NETWORKING
data which does not have any kind of error. Handshaking is not required by the Forward Error
Correction (FEC) between the source and the destination of the data (Rodes et al., 2013). For this
reason this is used for the purpose of broadcasting a wide range of data towards many
destination. Forward error correction is generally categorized into two categories and this
includes the block code FEC and Convolution Code FEC.
6. Comparison between Forward Error Detection Techniques
In the table provided below a discussion has been made regarding the advantages and the
disadvantages of the previously identified Forward Error Detection Techniques
Block FEC Convolution FEC
Advantages This is generally used for
detecting the error for the
transmitted data in the blocks
This type of technique can be
implemented very easily
This is associated with
converting the message
signal’s k bit to n bit code
word.
This type of FEC is generally
different and very simple as
compared to that of the block
FEC
Disadvantages This type of block code does
not have any kind of memory
This is associated with
involving longer units

INTERMEDIATE COMPUTER NETWORKING
This generally works on a
fixed size of blocks. This is
associated with encoding one
block at a time (Kløve &
Korzhik, 2012)
In this technique the bit
sequence is generally
dependent on both the current
bits as well as the previous
bits of data.
References:
Ahmed, M., Mahmood, A. N., & Hu, J. (2016). A survey of network anomaly detection
techniques. Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 60, 19-31.
Bai, N., Ip, E., Huang, Y. K., Mateo, E., Yaman, F., Li, M. J., ... & Moreno, V. (2012). Mode-
division multiplexed transmission with inline few-mode fiber amplifier. Optics express,
20(3), 2668-2680.
Clark Jr, G. C., & Cain, J. B. (2013). Error-correction coding for digital communications.
Springer Science & Business Media.
Faqhruldin, O. N., El-Saadany, E. F., & Zeineldin, H. H. (2014). A universal islanding detection
technique for distributed generation using pattern recognition. IEEE Transactions on
Smart Grid, 5(4), 1985-1992.
Kløve, T., & Korzhik, V. (2012). Error detecting codes: general theory and their application in
feedback communication systems (Vol. 335). Springer Science & Business Media.