A u s t r a l i a n J o u r n a l o f E a r l y C h i l d h o o d LEADERSHIP CONCEPTS AND THEORIES: Reflections for practice for early childhood directors Hanna Nupponen MultiLink Community Services Inc. This paper proposes that effective leadership is a vital component in providing quality childcare services. It suggests that developing an enhanced understanding of effective leadership frameworks can be a starting point for a quality process and can forge a commitment to working towards excellence in early childhood centres, as well as be a tool for self-reflection. Theories of leadership are outlined for future preparation of leaders in a complex environment in which centres now operate Introduction Many developments have occurred in the provision and delivery of childcare services for young children and their families in Australia in the past three decades. Specifically, the development of an extensive childcare system in the community and private sector has been significant. Three decades ago, there were minimal childcare services to enable women with young children to work outside the home. Childcare services that were available usually were established locally under the auspices of community organisations, church or neighbourhood groups. Now there is an extensive commercial childcare service sector. Since 1994, there has been a steady increase in the number of children attending child care in Queensland. The number of Australian children attending an early childhood program is elusive as there is no national data base for this calculation (OECD Country Note, 2001). However, the Child Care Census (2001) in Queensland indicated that the majority (90%) of children attending child care at licensed centres were below school age. Fourteen per cent of these children attended long day care centres full-time. In addition, more children attended privately-owned (75,706) childcare services than community-managed (47,110) centres. Child care plays a crucial role in complementing parental care and promoting children’s social and cognitive development (Berger, 1995; Berk, 1991; Feeney, Christensen & Moravcik, 1996; Ochiltree, 1994). Childcare services enable parents, especially women, to enter the workforce or access further education and training. Child care also provides support to families who have children with disabilities and additional needs. Children’s development is influenced by many factors such as the many interactions within the family and the community (Ochiltree, 1994). For instance, Urie Bronfenbrenner (1989), an American psychologist, proposed that a child’s development occurs in a system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment. Among researchers, the established view is that quality child care contributes to children’s developmental outcomes, with higher quality resulting in better outcomes for the child (DeBord, 1991; 1996; Vandell & Wolfe, 2003). Ultimately, quality child care preserves and enhances the family’s capacity to function effectively in supporting the ongoing health and wellbeing of children (Edgar, 1997). As has been earlier established (Caldwell & Hillard, 1985), professional child care is a supplement to parental care. Professional child care is not a substitute for family care, nor a competitor for the role of parents in the upbringing of their children. Child care provides both care and early education to children for their total development. Leadership as a professional issue in childcare centres Despite the development of childcare services, both in the United States and in Australia, there has been little encouragement for directors to pursue formal leadership training or credentials. Many employers consider it unnecessary for directors to seek higher qualifications, because higher degrees are viewed as ‘professional gatekeeping’ requiring increased wages, thus increasing the costs of operating a centre (Bowman, 1997; Jorde Bloom, 1992a; 1992b). Most directors in childcare centres have had no professional training for leadership and administration 43
V o lu m e 3 1 N o 1 M arch 2 0 0 644 roles (Hayden, 1997a; 1997b; Jorde Bloom, 1992a; Larkin, 1999; Mitchell, 1997; Seplocha, 1998). This is despite recognition that leadership training is a critical variable in program quality (Bowman, 1997; Jorde Bloom & Rafanello, 1995). Childcare directors are effectively change agents. Humphries and Senden (2000) proposed that leaders need to recognise that an organisation must continually anticipate opportunities for change, which will advance its mission and aims. Childcare centres are complex organisations influenced by the external environment (Bergin-Seers & Breen, 2002; Jorde Bloom, 1991). Uncertainty and change in child care and family policies requires understanding of the political climate. Directors in child care also need to be sensitive to the local community needs in which their centres operate. Neugebauer (1990) noted that studies in leadership and administration in early childhood had found that the director’s style of leadership has a profound effect on a total teaching approach of the centre. In particular, Neugebauer proposed that the director’s decision-making style was related to the quality of interpersonal relations within the centre. When decisions were made within a team environment, staff were more motivated, dedicated, trusting and clear on centre objectives than were staff who worked in centres where less attention was given to the quality of interpersonal relationships. Furthermore, Neugebauer found that the best type of leader within an early childhood program was a democratic motivator. This type of leader trusts staff decision making and creativity, rather than taking a strong supervisory role. In 2000, Neugebauer noted that: The director must set the course in order to lay out a vision that all staff can use as a road map to guide their day-to-day efforts ... Not only does the director set the course, but [the director] must also keep her finger on the pulse of the organisation (p. 99). Effective leaders balance the concern for task, quality and productivity with genuine concern for people (Seplocha, 1998). Clyde (1995) interviewed 50 childcare directors and found that responsiveness to staff was deemed important by 98.1 per cent of the participants, as was building good working relationships with all staff. This type of director continually monitors and supports the performance of staff to ensure that the organisational goals and vision are achieved and that all parts of the organisation are performing as expected. As Sergiovanni (1984) pointed out, effective leadership is about focusing on client-centred goals and to create a challenging environment, which provides staff with a sense of purpose and accomplishment. Childcare directors are usually aware of their leadership responsibilities (Grey, 1999). However, they often are not aware of their own leadership style and how it can be developed effectively. A vision of what they wish to achieve in their role as leaders is important in order to reach organisational goals (Grey, 1999). A vision of quality in childcare services benefits all members of the organisation and the children and families that a centre serves. Capacities to implement a vision of quality care include building supportive relationships with staff through open communication and encouraging participation in decision-making (Gardner & Terry, 1996). An organisational culture committed to continuous improvement in the quality of programs is necessary (Frede, 1995; Grey, 1999; Kapsalakis, Morda & Waniganayake, 2000). The following sections outline recent theories and conceptions about leadership in organisations that can offer useful insight into specific skills and knowledge needed for those practitioners aspiring toward leadership positions in centre-based child care. Leadership in organisations Leadership has been defined as ‘knowing what the next step is, and having the confidence and commitment to take it’ (Sarros, Butchatsky & Santora, 1996, p. 42). It has also been defined as a process that ranges from the avoidant through to the transactional, to the inspirational, idealised and transformational (Avolio, 1996; Parry & Sarros, 1996). ‘Leading must be seen in context and should not be considered separate from strategy, organising, learning and all those interactions that make organisations’ (Clegg & Gray, 1996, p. 29). Leadership is a ‘process of interpersonal influence from a person unto other(s) in the direction of a goal, where the other(s) subsequently act of their own will in the direction sought for by the leader’ (Baruch, 1998, p. 1). Leadership is a key issue in the development of groups and organisations and has been explored extensively in the behavioural and management sciences (Baruch, 1998). Researchers have sought to identify the means and strategies by which effective leaders ‘get the job done’ (Sarros et al., 1996, p. 4).
A u s t r a l i a n J o u r n a l o f E a r l y C h i l d h o o d45 Leaders are required to keep abreast of trends in the political, social and economic arena and think strategically about change and improvement. Leaders need to consider the broader issues and future developments of an organisation and look towards opportunities for change (Humphries & Senden, 2000). ‘Future leaders need to be proactive rather than reactive’ and, ‘they [leaders] will convert mandates and problems into challenges and opportunities’ (Bass, 2000, p. 22). There are a number of different theories about leadership such as Transformational Leadership (Bass, 1985), Shared Leadership (Fletcher & Kaufer, 2003), and Distributive Leadership (Harris, 2002) that can be considered when looking at leadership within childcare centres. These theories are discussed below. Further, information about school-based management and leadership is explored, as is looking at women as leaders; their relevance within the childcare context is linked to theories such as distributed leadership and transformational leadership theory. Transformational leadership The transformational model of leadership has been influential since the work of Bass (1985) and Burns (1978). Transformational leaders seek to motivate, influence, empower and develop the skills of others (Adamson, 1996). Leadership is a function of capacity and motivation, meaning that people are more motivated by affective factors than cognitive factors (Crawford, 2003). Leaders need to understand the importance of influencing the manner in which people work together to create an organisational culture where people have an intrinsic need to do their best. Transformative leadership explains and describes the importance of the relational aspects of leadership (Burns, 1978). Transformational leaders motivate their followers to perform well while developing the skills of the followers to allow those individuals to make their own decisions, which consequently enable them to take greater ownership and responsibility for tasks (Adamson, 1996). ‘The needs, values and goals of leaders and followers mesh and create meaning and community in the context of the organisation’ (Rogers, 1988, p. 143). This form of leadership has been described as cultural expression because it is about creating with followers a vision for the organisation that is relevant for a specific organisational culture such that followers are empowered (Sergiovanni, 1998). Shared leadership In contrast to the transformational model is the theory of shared leadership (Fletcher & Kaufer, 2003; Pearce & Conger, 2003). Within this model, leadership is embedded in the social system at different levels; leadership is conceptualised as a relational process, a distributed phenomenon occurring at various levels and dependent on social interaction and networks of influence rather than traditional one-directional models of leadership. The leader engages the group, not the individual; people listen to each other; the team is empowered and dynamic; and all are equal (Locke, 2003). Leading within this model may prove to be challenging, as it requires letting go of power. Shared or participative leadership may not always be possible if an organisation does not have adequately skilled and experienced staff. The group must have the ability and relevant professional knowledge to enable it to reach consensus and make informed decisions (Locke, 2003). Locke suggests that perhaps a vertical form of leadership may be more appropriate in some cases. This would involve a top-down, authoritative stance, with some shared decision-making principles. However, despite the group members’ understanding of what needs to happen, some situations require a position of power and authority to implement change (Seibert, Sparrowe & Leiden, 2003). The authors further noted that such a leadership approach requires high investment in building and maintaining group relationships while asserting a position of authority for instigating action. The focus remains on collegial activity. Distributive leadership Another form of shared leadership is known as distributive leadership, with a strong emphasis on skill development through collaboration and sharing of ideas (Harris, 2002). In educational contexts, the intensification of tasks because of the asserted pace of change leads to overload, with an endless schedule of meetings and administrative deadlines and only a limited number of hours in the day to complete them. Overloading is constant and can be physically and emotionally draining and cognitively demanding (Gronn, 2003). To manage, physically and emotionally, it is suggested that leaders adopt a distributive leadership framework (Gronn, 2003; Harris, 2002; Lakomski, 2002). ‘Distributed leadership is characterised as a form of collective leadership in
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